Leadership and Groups
Nothing is accomplished in the work place without team or group interaction. To effectively manage group performance, a leader must understand these complicated human resource issues and how organizations behave over time. Leaders must also understand the implications of an organizational culture and how it can affect carrying out normal business processes. Group dynamics must be considered when forming work groups to accomplish a business goal.
Teams and Groups
Groups in the work environment can be formal and informal. Formal work groups are created to achieve organizational goals, and can be further classified into command group, informal work group, or a task force. An informal work group emerges naturally when individuals feel that a collective might further their own goals or meet their personal needs. A command group is a collection of subordinates who all report to the same supervisor; a task force consists of people assigned to a team to accomplish a particular goal.
Teams are formal work groups with a common goal and a high level of interaction among members of the team. An example would be a cross-functional team formed to solve a specific business issue within a set period of time. Teams take on a life of their own as a standing committee or a task group when they continue to function over an indefinite period of time. Self-managed work teams, which are used extensively in the automotive industry, are responsible for achieving goals, coordinating efforts, allocating tasks, and even disciplining team members’ poor performance. Virtual teams are connected only through electronic means and usually do not meet each other, so they require a special way of managing and motivating for group performance and goal achievement.
Social Loafing
Social loafing is the tendency of individuals to work less when in a group. This effect increases with group size. This phenomenon can be explained by the Social Impact Theory, which is based on the assumption that people do certain things because of social force, whether it is social pressure to win at a game or the pressure to give a good class presentation. When a group shares the pressure and responsibility, the impact is divided, and each team member is only faced with a portion of it. Social loafing can be reduced by making individual contributions identifiable, making group members feel they add value to the group, and keeping group size as small as possible.
Group Performance
Group performance can be affected by the size of the group, group function, group status, and the composition of the group. The quality of people's performance on the same task is often different when they work on it alone as compared to when they perform in front of others. Interestingly, the presence of others can either enhance or impair a person's performance. You do better with certain tasks when doing them in front of other people; other tasks, which you do perfectly well when practicing by yourself, can be difficult when other people are watching. Thompson’s model of task interdependence indicates that pooled task interdependence can enhance group performance, because the group is measured by the total outcome rather than individual performance. Finally, group cohesiveness will affect group performance.
Organizational Groups
The four kinds of work groups that can dramatically affect organizational performance are top-management teams, self-managed work teams, R&D teams, and virtual teams. Top-management teams, usually reporting to the CEO, require complex and intensive interaction with reciprocal task independence, and are susceptible to process losses. Keeping the team small assures members their contribution is important, and they can develop open/clear communications. Self-managed groups motivate team members to perform at a higher level and can increase job satisfaction. To be successful, certain conditions must be in place within the team and within the top-management team. Research and development teams create the future for a company, and can add value to the enterprise if appropriately managed. Virtual teams face the same challenges as regular work groups, but require less overhead to support them. Great care must be taken to avoid dissatisfaction and a lack of cohesiveness, however.
Leadership
Leadership is influencing others to achieve a common goal. It is more strategic than tactical as today’s leader must be more than a manager of people. Leadership effectiveness depends upon the leader’s style. There are many theories of leadership, but no one theory seems to answer why leaders are successful or not. Today’s successful leader will know their subordinates, have a clear vision, and have the ability to be flexible in his or her approach to leading staff.
Saturday, September 30, 2006
Organizational behavior Chapter 14
Communication -- the sharing of information between two or more individuals or groups to reach a common understanding
communication network -- a set of pathways through which information flows within a group or organization
sender -- the individual, group, or organization that needs or wants to share information with some other individual, group, or organization
receiver -- the individual, group, or organization for which the information is intended
message -- the information that is sender needs or wants to share with other people
encoding -- translating a message into symbols or language that a receiver can understand
jargon -- specialized terminology or language that members of her group developed to aid communication among themselves
medium -- the pathway through which an encoded messages transmitted to a receiver
verbal communication -- the sharing of information by means of words, either spoken or written
nonverbal communication -- the sharing of information by means of facial expressions, body language, and modes of dress
decoding -- interpreting or trying to make sense of a sender's message
noise -- anything that interferes with the communication process
filtering -- a sender's withholding part of a message because the sender thinks the receiver does not need oral not one to receive the information
information distortion -- the change in meaning that occurs when a message travels through a series of different senders to a receiver
rumor -- unofficial information on topics that are important or interesting to an organization's members
Grapevine -- a set of informal communication pathways through which unofficial information flows
linguistic style -- a person's characteristic way of speaking
information richness -- the amount of information a medium of communication can carry and the extent to which it enables senders and receivers to reach a common understanding
intranet -- a companywide computer network
persuasive communication -- the attempt by one person or group to transmit and share information with another person or group to get the other to accept, agree with, follow, and seek to achieve the formers goals and objectives
devils advocate -- a person willing to stand up and question the beliefs of more powerful people that a planned course of action is flawed
Summary
Communication is one of the most important processes that takes place in organization. Effective communication allows individuals, groups, and organizations to achieve their goals and perform at a high level, it affects virtually every aspect of organizational behavior.
Communication is the sharing of information between two or more individuals or groups and an organization to reach a common understanding.
Communication serves four major functions and organizations:
The communication process entails a number of steps including the senders and coding of a message, selection of a medium, the coding of the message by the receiver, and completing the feedback loop. Jargon facilitates communication within the group and hinders communication outside group.
Filtering and information distortion, poor listening, lack of or inappropriate feedback, rumors, and cross-cultural differences in linguistic styles can all lead to an effective communication and organizations. Communication can be improved by establishing trust and encourage open communication, improving listening skills, developing good feedback skills, using company TVs to spread accurate information, and understanding cross-cultural differences in linguistic styles.
Communication media very in information richness. Face-to-face communication is the medium highest and information richness. It is followed by verbal communication electronically transmitted, personally addressed Britain communication, and in personal written communication. Other factors that affect the selection of a medium include how much of the senders and receivers time it takes and whether it leaves a paper or electronic trail.
Advances in information technology such as global computer networks such as the Internet generally tend to contribute most to the knowledge function of communication. Given the vast array of information currently available to organizational members, organizations have to be careful that their members are not overloaded with information. Using electronic communication to replace face-to-face communication and workgroups has certain disadvantages that tend to increase as the level of task interdependence between group members increases.
Persuasive communication is the use of information and messages to influence others to act in the way desired by the sender.
communication network -- a set of pathways through which information flows within a group or organization
sender -- the individual, group, or organization that needs or wants to share information with some other individual, group, or organization
receiver -- the individual, group, or organization for which the information is intended
message -- the information that is sender needs or wants to share with other people
encoding -- translating a message into symbols or language that a receiver can understand
jargon -- specialized terminology or language that members of her group developed to aid communication among themselves
medium -- the pathway through which an encoded messages transmitted to a receiver
verbal communication -- the sharing of information by means of words, either spoken or written
nonverbal communication -- the sharing of information by means of facial expressions, body language, and modes of dress
decoding -- interpreting or trying to make sense of a sender's message
noise -- anything that interferes with the communication process
filtering -- a sender's withholding part of a message because the sender thinks the receiver does not need oral not one to receive the information
information distortion -- the change in meaning that occurs when a message travels through a series of different senders to a receiver
rumor -- unofficial information on topics that are important or interesting to an organization's members
Grapevine -- a set of informal communication pathways through which unofficial information flows
linguistic style -- a person's characteristic way of speaking
information richness -- the amount of information a medium of communication can carry and the extent to which it enables senders and receivers to reach a common understanding
intranet -- a companywide computer network
persuasive communication -- the attempt by one person or group to transmit and share information with another person or group to get the other to accept, agree with, follow, and seek to achieve the formers goals and objectives
devils advocate -- a person willing to stand up and question the beliefs of more powerful people that a planned course of action is flawed
Summary
Communication is one of the most important processes that takes place in organization. Effective communication allows individuals, groups, and organizations to achieve their goals and perform at a high level, it affects virtually every aspect of organizational behavior.
Communication is the sharing of information between two or more individuals or groups and an organization to reach a common understanding.
Communication serves four major functions and organizations:
- providing knowledge
- motivating organizational members
- controlling and coordinating individual efforts
- expressing feelings and emotions
- the wheel
- the chain
- the circle
- the all channel network
The communication process entails a number of steps including the senders and coding of a message, selection of a medium, the coding of the message by the receiver, and completing the feedback loop. Jargon facilitates communication within the group and hinders communication outside group.
Filtering and information distortion, poor listening, lack of or inappropriate feedback, rumors, and cross-cultural differences in linguistic styles can all lead to an effective communication and organizations. Communication can be improved by establishing trust and encourage open communication, improving listening skills, developing good feedback skills, using company TVs to spread accurate information, and understanding cross-cultural differences in linguistic styles.
Communication media very in information richness. Face-to-face communication is the medium highest and information richness. It is followed by verbal communication electronically transmitted, personally addressed Britain communication, and in personal written communication. Other factors that affect the selection of a medium include how much of the senders and receivers time it takes and whether it leaves a paper or electronic trail.
Advances in information technology such as global computer networks such as the Internet generally tend to contribute most to the knowledge function of communication. Given the vast array of information currently available to organizational members, organizations have to be careful that their members are not overloaded with information. Using electronic communication to replace face-to-face communication and workgroups has certain disadvantages that tend to increase as the level of task interdependence between group members increases.
Persuasive communication is the use of information and messages to influence others to act in the way desired by the sender.
Organizational behavior Chapter 13
Power -- the ability of one person or group to cause another person or group to do something that they otherwise might not have done
Organizational politics -- activities in which managers engage to increase their power and to pursue goals that favor their individual and group interests
political decision-making -- decision-making characterized by active disagreement over which organizational goals to pursue and how to pursue them
coalition -- a group of managers who have similar interests and join forces to achieve their goals
formal individual power -- power that originates from a person's position in organization
legitimate power -- the power to control and use organizational resources to accomplish organizational goals
reward power -- the power to give pay raises, promotions, praise, interesting projects, and other rewards to subordinates
coercive power -- the power to give or withhold punishment
information power -- the power that stems from access to and control over information
informal individual power -- power that stems from personal characteristics such as personality, skills, and capabilities
expert power -- informal power that stems from superior ability or expertise
referent power -- informal power that stems from being liked, admired, and respected
charismatic power -- an intense form of referent power that stems from an individual's personality or physical or other abilities, which induce others to believe in and follow that person
organizational conflict -- the struggle that arises when the goal directed behavior of one person or group blocks the goal directed behavior of another person or group
third-party negotiator -- an outsider skilled in handling are getting in negotiations
mediator -- a neutral third party who tries to help parties in conflict reconcile their differences
arbiter -- a third party who has the authority to impose a solution to a dispute
Summary
Understanding and managing power, politics, conflict, and negotiation is an integral part of a manager's job. Organizations are composed of people who come together to achieve their common goals. When resources are scarce, people and groups have to compete for them, and some achieve their goals while others do not. In an organization managers have the primary responsibility to ensure that competition for resources is free and fair and that people who obtain power over resources do so because they possess skills and abilities that will, in the long run, benefit all members of the organization. Managers also have the responsibility to manage conflicts as they arise to ensure the long-term success of the organization and to maintain a balance of power to ensure that politics in conflict benefit rather than harm the organization.
Power is the ability of one person or group to cause another person or group to do something they otherwise might not have done. Managers engage in political activities to increase their power and to pursue goals that favor their individual and group interests. Power and politics can benefit or harm an organization.
Sources of formal individual power include legitimate power, reward power, coercive power, and information power. Sources up informal individual power include expert power, referent power, and charismatic power.
Sources of functional and divisional power include the ability to control on certain contingencies, you replace ability, centrality, and the ability to control and generate resources.
Managers can use many kinds of political tactics to increase their individual power. These tactics include making oneself irreplaceable and central, controlling contingencies and resources, recognizing who has power, controlling the agenda, bringing in an outside expert, and building coalitions and alliances. Managing politics to obtain positive effects requires a balance of power in organization and a strong CEO who has the ability to keep powerful people and groups in check.
Conflict is the struggle that arises when the goal directed behavior of one person or group blocks the goal directed behavior of another person or group. Whether conflict benefits or harms an organization depends on how it is managed.
The three main sources of conflict are differentiation, task relationships, and scarcity of resources. When conflict occurs, it typically moves through a series of stages. In Pondy's model of conflict, these stages are lantent conflict, perceived conflict, felt conflict, manifest conflict, and the conflict aftermath.
Negotiation and bargaining is an important means of managing and resolving conflict at both the individual and group level. The ability to negotiate an agreement is an important skill and manager needs to cultivate.
Organizational politics -- activities in which managers engage to increase their power and to pursue goals that favor their individual and group interests
political decision-making -- decision-making characterized by active disagreement over which organizational goals to pursue and how to pursue them
coalition -- a group of managers who have similar interests and join forces to achieve their goals
formal individual power -- power that originates from a person's position in organization
legitimate power -- the power to control and use organizational resources to accomplish organizational goals
reward power -- the power to give pay raises, promotions, praise, interesting projects, and other rewards to subordinates
coercive power -- the power to give or withhold punishment
information power -- the power that stems from access to and control over information
informal individual power -- power that stems from personal characteristics such as personality, skills, and capabilities
expert power -- informal power that stems from superior ability or expertise
referent power -- informal power that stems from being liked, admired, and respected
charismatic power -- an intense form of referent power that stems from an individual's personality or physical or other abilities, which induce others to believe in and follow that person
organizational conflict -- the struggle that arises when the goal directed behavior of one person or group blocks the goal directed behavior of another person or group
third-party negotiator -- an outsider skilled in handling are getting in negotiations
mediator -- a neutral third party who tries to help parties in conflict reconcile their differences
arbiter -- a third party who has the authority to impose a solution to a dispute
Summary
Understanding and managing power, politics, conflict, and negotiation is an integral part of a manager's job. Organizations are composed of people who come together to achieve their common goals. When resources are scarce, people and groups have to compete for them, and some achieve their goals while others do not. In an organization managers have the primary responsibility to ensure that competition for resources is free and fair and that people who obtain power over resources do so because they possess skills and abilities that will, in the long run, benefit all members of the organization. Managers also have the responsibility to manage conflicts as they arise to ensure the long-term success of the organization and to maintain a balance of power to ensure that politics in conflict benefit rather than harm the organization.
Power is the ability of one person or group to cause another person or group to do something they otherwise might not have done. Managers engage in political activities to increase their power and to pursue goals that favor their individual and group interests. Power and politics can benefit or harm an organization.
Sources of formal individual power include legitimate power, reward power, coercive power, and information power. Sources up informal individual power include expert power, referent power, and charismatic power.
Sources of functional and divisional power include the ability to control on certain contingencies, you replace ability, centrality, and the ability to control and generate resources.
Managers can use many kinds of political tactics to increase their individual power. These tactics include making oneself irreplaceable and central, controlling contingencies and resources, recognizing who has power, controlling the agenda, bringing in an outside expert, and building coalitions and alliances. Managing politics to obtain positive effects requires a balance of power in organization and a strong CEO who has the ability to keep powerful people and groups in check.
Conflict is the struggle that arises when the goal directed behavior of one person or group blocks the goal directed behavior of another person or group. Whether conflict benefits or harms an organization depends on how it is managed.
The three main sources of conflict are differentiation, task relationships, and scarcity of resources. When conflict occurs, it typically moves through a series of stages. In Pondy's model of conflict, these stages are lantent conflict, perceived conflict, felt conflict, manifest conflict, and the conflict aftermath.
Negotiation and bargaining is an important means of managing and resolving conflict at both the individual and group level. The ability to negotiate an agreement is an important skill and manager needs to cultivate.
Organizational behavior chapter 12
Leadership — the exercise of influence by one member of a group or organization over other members to help the group or organization achieve its goals
leader – an individual who is able to influence group or organizational members to help the group or organization achieve its goals
formal leader — a member of an organization who is given authority by the organization to influence other organizational members to achieve organizational goals
informal leader — an organizational member with no formal authority to influence others to nevertheless is able to exert considerable influence because of special skills or talents
consideration — he hate your indicating that a leader trusts, respects, and values good relationships with his or her followers
initiating structure — behavior that a leader in cages in to make sure that work gets done and subordinates perform their jobs acceptably
leader reward behavior — a leader’s positive reinforcement of subordinates desired behavior
leader punishing behavior — a leader’s negative response to subordinates undesired behaviors
contingency theory of leadership — the theory that leader effectiveness is determined by both the personal characteristics of leaders and by the situations in which leaders find themselves
least preferred co-employee scale — a questionnaire that measures later style by scoring leader’s responses to questions about the coemployee with whom they have the most difficulty working
leader member relations — the relationship between a leader in his or her followers
task structure — the extent to which the work to be performed by a group is clearly defined
position power — the amount of formal authority a liter house
path-goal theory — a theory that describes how leaders can motivate their followers to achieve group and organizational goals and the kinds of behaviors leaders can engage in to motivate followers
Vroom and Yetton model — a model that describes the different ways in which leaders can make decisions and guides leaders in determining the extent to which subordinates should participate in decision-making
leader member exchange theory — a theory that describes the different kinds of relationships that may develop between a leader and a follower and what the leader in the follower give to and receive back from the relationship
leadership substitute — something that acts in place of a formal leader and makes leadership unnecessary
leadership neutralizer — something that prevents a leader from having any influence
transformational leadership — leadership that inspires followers to trust the leader, perform behaviors that contribute to the achievement of organizational goals, and perform high-level
charismatic leader — a self-confident, enthusiastic leader able to win followers respect and support for his or her vision of how good things could be
intellectual stimulation — behavior that a leader in cages and to make followers aware of problems in their groups and organization and to view these problems from a new perspective consistent with the leaders vision
developmental consideration — behavior that a leader engages in to provide support and encouragement to followers and give them opportunities to develop and grow on the job
transactional leadership — leadership that motivates followers by exchanging rewards for high performance and noticing and reprimanding subordinates for mistakes in substandard performance
Summary
Leaders at all levels and organization help individuals, groups, and the organization as a whole achieve their goals and can have profound effects and organizations.
Leadership is the exercise of influence by one member of a group or organization over other members to help the group or organization achieve its goals. Formal leaders how formal all 40 to influence others by virtue of their job responsibilities. Informal leaders lack formal authority but influence others by virtue of their special skills or talents.
The trait approach to leadership has found that good leaders tend to be intelligent, Dominick, self-confident, energetic, honest, mature, and knowledgeable and are able to withstand stress.
Possessing these traits, however, does not guarantee the leader will be effective, nor does the failure to have one or more of these traits mean that the leader will be ineffective.
A lot of the behaviors that leaders engage in fall into two main categories: consideration and initiating structure. Consideration includes all leadership behaviors that indicate that leaders trust, respect, and value a good relationship with their followers. Initiating structure includes all the behaviors that leaders engage in to help subordinates achieve their goals and perform high levels. Leaders also engage in reward in punishing behaviors.
Fiedler’s contingency theory proposes that leader effectiveness depends on both later style and situational characteristics. Leaders have either a relationship oriented style or a task oriented style. Situational characteristics, including leader-member relations, task structure, and position power, determine how favorable a situation is for leading. Relationship-oriented leaders are most effective in moderately favorable situations. Task oriented leaders are most effective and extremely favorable or unfavorable situations.
Leaders cannot easily change her style, so Fiedler recommends changing situations to fit the leader or signing leaders to situations in which they will be most effective.
Path-goal theory suggests that effective leaders motivate their followers by giving them out comes they desire when they perform at high level or achieve their work goals. Affective leaders also make sure their subordinates believe that they can obtain their work goals and perform high-level, show subordinates the path to goal attainment, remove obstacles that might come up along the way, and expressed confidence in their subordinates capabilities. Leaders need to adjust the type of behavior they engage in (directive, supportive, participated, or achievement oriented) to correspond to the nature of the subordinates they are dealing with and the type of work they’re doing.
The Vroom and Yetton model specifies the extent to which leaders should have their subordinates participate in decision-making. How much subordinates should participate depends on aspects of the decision that needs to be made, the subordinates involved, and the information needed to make a good decision.
Leader member exchange theory focuses on the leader- follower dyad and suggest that leaders do not treat each of their followers the same but rather develop different kinds of relationships with different subordinates. Some leader follower dyads have high-quality relationships. Subordinates in these dyad’s are members of the in group. Other leader follower dyad have low-quality relationships. Subordinates in these dyad’s form that outgroup.
Sometimes leadership does not seem to have much of an effect in organizations because of the existence of substitutes and neutralizers. A leadership substitute is something that acts in place of a formal leader. Substitutes make leadership unnecessary because they take the place of the influence of a leader. A leadership neutralize or is something that prevents a leader from having influence and negates a leader’s efforts. When neutralizers are present, there is a leadership void — the leader is having little or no of fact, and nothing else is taking the leaders place.
Transformational leaders increase their followers awareness of the importance of their jobs and the followers and needs for personal growth and Koppel Schmidt and motivate followers to work for the good of the organization. Leaders transform their followers by being charismatic, intellectually stimulating their followers, and engaging in developmental consideration. Transactional leadership occurs when leaders motivate their subordinates by exchanging rewards for high performance and reprimanding instances of low performance.
Leader mood at work and levels of emotional intelligence have the potential to influence the leader of effectiveness. Preliminary research suggests that when leaders tend to be in a good mood at work, their subordinates may perform a higher level and be less likely to resign.
Women and men do not appear to differ and the leadership behaviors (consideration and initiating structure) that they perform in organizations. Women, however, appear to be more democratic or participative than men as leaders.
leader – an individual who is able to influence group or organizational members to help the group or organization achieve its goals
formal leader — a member of an organization who is given authority by the organization to influence other organizational members to achieve organizational goals
informal leader — an organizational member with no formal authority to influence others to nevertheless is able to exert considerable influence because of special skills or talents
consideration — he hate your indicating that a leader trusts, respects, and values good relationships with his or her followers
initiating structure — behavior that a leader in cages in to make sure that work gets done and subordinates perform their jobs acceptably
leader reward behavior — a leader’s positive reinforcement of subordinates desired behavior
leader punishing behavior — a leader’s negative response to subordinates undesired behaviors
contingency theory of leadership — the theory that leader effectiveness is determined by both the personal characteristics of leaders and by the situations in which leaders find themselves
least preferred co-employee scale — a questionnaire that measures later style by scoring leader’s responses to questions about the coemployee with whom they have the most difficulty working
leader member relations — the relationship between a leader in his or her followers
task structure — the extent to which the work to be performed by a group is clearly defined
position power — the amount of formal authority a liter house
path-goal theory — a theory that describes how leaders can motivate their followers to achieve group and organizational goals and the kinds of behaviors leaders can engage in to motivate followers
Vroom and Yetton model — a model that describes the different ways in which leaders can make decisions and guides leaders in determining the extent to which subordinates should participate in decision-making
leader member exchange theory — a theory that describes the different kinds of relationships that may develop between a leader and a follower and what the leader in the follower give to and receive back from the relationship
leadership substitute — something that acts in place of a formal leader and makes leadership unnecessary
leadership neutralizer — something that prevents a leader from having any influence
transformational leadership — leadership that inspires followers to trust the leader, perform behaviors that contribute to the achievement of organizational goals, and perform high-level
charismatic leader — a self-confident, enthusiastic leader able to win followers respect and support for his or her vision of how good things could be
intellectual stimulation — behavior that a leader in cages and to make followers aware of problems in their groups and organization and to view these problems from a new perspective consistent with the leaders vision
developmental consideration — behavior that a leader engages in to provide support and encouragement to followers and give them opportunities to develop and grow on the job
transactional leadership — leadership that motivates followers by exchanging rewards for high performance and noticing and reprimanding subordinates for mistakes in substandard performance
Summary
Leaders at all levels and organization help individuals, groups, and the organization as a whole achieve their goals and can have profound effects and organizations.
Leadership is the exercise of influence by one member of a group or organization over other members to help the group or organization achieve its goals. Formal leaders how formal all 40 to influence others by virtue of their job responsibilities. Informal leaders lack formal authority but influence others by virtue of their special skills or talents.
The trait approach to leadership has found that good leaders tend to be intelligent, Dominick, self-confident, energetic, honest, mature, and knowledgeable and are able to withstand stress.
Possessing these traits, however, does not guarantee the leader will be effective, nor does the failure to have one or more of these traits mean that the leader will be ineffective.
A lot of the behaviors that leaders engage in fall into two main categories: consideration and initiating structure. Consideration includes all leadership behaviors that indicate that leaders trust, respect, and value a good relationship with their followers. Initiating structure includes all the behaviors that leaders engage in to help subordinates achieve their goals and perform high levels. Leaders also engage in reward in punishing behaviors.
Fiedler’s contingency theory proposes that leader effectiveness depends on both later style and situational characteristics. Leaders have either a relationship oriented style or a task oriented style. Situational characteristics, including leader-member relations, task structure, and position power, determine how favorable a situation is for leading. Relationship-oriented leaders are most effective in moderately favorable situations. Task oriented leaders are most effective and extremely favorable or unfavorable situations.
Leaders cannot easily change her style, so Fiedler recommends changing situations to fit the leader or signing leaders to situations in which they will be most effective.
Path-goal theory suggests that effective leaders motivate their followers by giving them out comes they desire when they perform at high level or achieve their work goals. Affective leaders also make sure their subordinates believe that they can obtain their work goals and perform high-level, show subordinates the path to goal attainment, remove obstacles that might come up along the way, and expressed confidence in their subordinates capabilities. Leaders need to adjust the type of behavior they engage in (directive, supportive, participated, or achievement oriented) to correspond to the nature of the subordinates they are dealing with and the type of work they’re doing.
The Vroom and Yetton model specifies the extent to which leaders should have their subordinates participate in decision-making. How much subordinates should participate depends on aspects of the decision that needs to be made, the subordinates involved, and the information needed to make a good decision.
Leader member exchange theory focuses on the leader- follower dyad and suggest that leaders do not treat each of their followers the same but rather develop different kinds of relationships with different subordinates. Some leader follower dyads have high-quality relationships. Subordinates in these dyad’s are members of the in group. Other leader follower dyad have low-quality relationships. Subordinates in these dyad’s form that outgroup.
Sometimes leadership does not seem to have much of an effect in organizations because of the existence of substitutes and neutralizers. A leadership substitute is something that acts in place of a formal leader. Substitutes make leadership unnecessary because they take the place of the influence of a leader. A leadership neutralize or is something that prevents a leader from having influence and negates a leader’s efforts. When neutralizers are present, there is a leadership void — the leader is having little or no of fact, and nothing else is taking the leaders place.
Transformational leaders increase their followers awareness of the importance of their jobs and the followers and needs for personal growth and Koppel Schmidt and motivate followers to work for the good of the organization. Leaders transform their followers by being charismatic, intellectually stimulating their followers, and engaging in developmental consideration. Transactional leadership occurs when leaders motivate their subordinates by exchanging rewards for high performance and reprimanding instances of low performance.
Leader mood at work and levels of emotional intelligence have the potential to influence the leader of effectiveness. Preliminary research suggests that when leaders tend to be in a good mood at work, their subordinates may perform a higher level and be less likely to resign.
Women and men do not appear to differ and the leadership behaviors (consideration and initiating structure) that they perform in organizations. Women, however, appear to be more democratic or participative than men as leaders.
Organizational behavior chapter 11
Potential performance — the highest level of performance that a group is capable of achieving at a given point in time
process losses — performance difficulties that a group experiences because of coronation and motivation problems
process gains — increases and potential performance that result from new ways of motivating in coordinating group members
social loafing — the tendency of individuals to exert less effort when they work in groups than when they were:
sucker effect — a condition in which some group members, not wishing to be considered suckers, reduce their own efforts when they see social loafing by other group members
task interdependence — the extent to which the work performed by one member of a group affects what other members do
pooled task independence — the task interdependence that results when each member of a group makes a separate and independent contribution to group performance
sequential task interdependence — the task interdependence that results when group members must perform specific behaviors in a predetermined order
reciprocal task interdependence — the task interdependence that results when the activities of all work group members are fully dependent on one another
synergy — a process gain that occurs when members of her group acting together are able to produce more or better output than would have been produced by the combined efforts of each person acting a line
group cohesiveness — the attractiveness of a group to its members
top management team — the team of managers who report to the chief executive officer and determine what an organization is trying to accomplish and develop plans for goal attainment
research and development team — a team that is formed to develop new products, maybe cross functional, and is often used in high-tech industries
skunk Works — an R&D team that is created to expedite new product design and promote innovation in an organization
virtual team — a team in which a significant amount of communication and interaction occurs a lot chronically rather than face-to-face
Summary
Group and organizational effectiveness hinge on minimizing process losses, achieving process gains, a winding group goals with organizational goals, and having the appropriate level of group cohesiveness. Four types of groups that especially important in many organizations include the top management team, self managed work teams, research and development teams, and virtual teams.
Actual group performance often fall short of potential performance because of process losses due to coronation a motivation problems in groups. Process gains cause the potential performance of a group to rise, and they enhance group effectiveness.
Social loafing, a motivation problem that leads to process losses, is the tendency of individuals to exert less effort when they worked in a group that if they were alone. Social loafing occurs for two reasons: individuals in a group think they will not receive positive outcomes for performing at high-level or negative outcomes for substandard performance because individual levels of performance cannot easily be identified and evaluated. And second, individuals think that their own efforts are unimportant or not really needed. Social loafing can be eliminated or reduced by making individual performance levels identifiable, making each individual feel that he or she can make an important and worthwhile contribution to the group, and by keeping group size small.
Group tasks can be characterized in terms of the nature of interdependence between group members. Thompson describes three types of task interdependence:pooled, sequential, and reciprocal. The nature and causes of process losses and process gains depends on the type of task involved and the degree of interdependence among group members.
Group cohesiveness is the attraction of a group to its members. Group size, the similarity/diversity of group members, competition with other groups, success, and exclusiveness of the group help to determine the level of group cohesiveness. Consequences of group cohesiveness are the level of participation in communication within a group, the level of conformity to group norms, and group goal a calm judgment. When group goals are aligned with organizational goals, there is an optimal level of group cohesiveness that results in high levels of performance. When group goals are not aligned with organizational goals, group cohesiveness is dysfunctional for organization.
Four kinds of work groups that have the potential to affect organizational performance dramatically our top management teams, self managed work teams, research and development teams, and virtual teams.
process losses — performance difficulties that a group experiences because of coronation and motivation problems
process gains — increases and potential performance that result from new ways of motivating in coordinating group members
social loafing — the tendency of individuals to exert less effort when they work in groups than when they were:
sucker effect — a condition in which some group members, not wishing to be considered suckers, reduce their own efforts when they see social loafing by other group members
task interdependence — the extent to which the work performed by one member of a group affects what other members do
pooled task independence — the task interdependence that results when each member of a group makes a separate and independent contribution to group performance
sequential task interdependence — the task interdependence that results when group members must perform specific behaviors in a predetermined order
reciprocal task interdependence — the task interdependence that results when the activities of all work group members are fully dependent on one another
synergy — a process gain that occurs when members of her group acting together are able to produce more or better output than would have been produced by the combined efforts of each person acting a line
group cohesiveness — the attractiveness of a group to its members
top management team — the team of managers who report to the chief executive officer and determine what an organization is trying to accomplish and develop plans for goal attainment
research and development team — a team that is formed to develop new products, maybe cross functional, and is often used in high-tech industries
skunk Works — an R&D team that is created to expedite new product design and promote innovation in an organization
virtual team — a team in which a significant amount of communication and interaction occurs a lot chronically rather than face-to-face
Summary
Group and organizational effectiveness hinge on minimizing process losses, achieving process gains, a winding group goals with organizational goals, and having the appropriate level of group cohesiveness. Four types of groups that especially important in many organizations include the top management team, self managed work teams, research and development teams, and virtual teams.
Actual group performance often fall short of potential performance because of process losses due to coronation a motivation problems in groups. Process gains cause the potential performance of a group to rise, and they enhance group effectiveness.
Social loafing, a motivation problem that leads to process losses, is the tendency of individuals to exert less effort when they worked in a group that if they were alone. Social loafing occurs for two reasons: individuals in a group think they will not receive positive outcomes for performing at high-level or negative outcomes for substandard performance because individual levels of performance cannot easily be identified and evaluated. And second, individuals think that their own efforts are unimportant or not really needed. Social loafing can be eliminated or reduced by making individual performance levels identifiable, making each individual feel that he or she can make an important and worthwhile contribution to the group, and by keeping group size small.
Group tasks can be characterized in terms of the nature of interdependence between group members. Thompson describes three types of task interdependence:pooled, sequential, and reciprocal. The nature and causes of process losses and process gains depends on the type of task involved and the degree of interdependence among group members.
Group cohesiveness is the attraction of a group to its members. Group size, the similarity/diversity of group members, competition with other groups, success, and exclusiveness of the group help to determine the level of group cohesiveness. Consequences of group cohesiveness are the level of participation in communication within a group, the level of conformity to group norms, and group goal a calm judgment. When group goals are aligned with organizational goals, there is an optimal level of group cohesiveness that results in high levels of performance. When group goals are not aligned with organizational goals, group cohesiveness is dysfunctional for organization.
Four kinds of work groups that have the potential to affect organizational performance dramatically our top management teams, self managed work teams, research and development teams, and virtual teams.
Organizational behavior chapter 10
Group -- a set of two or more people who interact with each other to achieve certain wells or to meet certain needs
group goal -- a goal that all or most members of her group can agree on as a common goal
formal workgroup -- a group established by management to help the organization achieve its goals
informal workgroup -- a group that emerges naturally when individuals perceive that membership in a group will help them achieve their goals are meet their needs
command group -- a formal workgroup consisting of subordinates who reports the same supervisor
task force -- a formal workgroup consisting of people come together to compost a specific goal
team -- a formal workgroup consisting of people who worked intensely together to achieve a common group goal
self managed work team -- a formal workgroup consisting of people who are jointly responsible for ensuring that the team accomplishes its goals and who lead themselves
friendship group -- a informal workgroup consisting of people who enjoy each other's company and socialize with each other on and off the job
interest group -- an informal workgroup consisting of people who come together because they have a common goal or objective related to their organizational membership
division of labor -- dividing of work and assigning particular task to specific workers
homogeneous group -- a group in which members have many characteristics in common
heterogeneous group -- a group in which members have few characteristics in common
group function -- the work that a group performance as its contribution to the accomplishment of organizational goals
group status -- the implicity agreed upon, perceived importance for the organization as a whole of what are group does
group efficacy -- the shared belief group members how about the ability of the group to achieve its goals and objectives
social facilitation -- the effects that the presence of others have on performance, enhancing the performance of easy tasks and impairing the performance of difficult tasks
role relationships -- the ways in which group and organizational members interact with one another to perform their specific roles
role making -- taking the initiative to create a role by assuming responsibilities that are not part of an assigned role
role taking -- performing the responsibilities that are required as part of an assigned role
group norms -- in formal rules of conduct or behaviors considered important by most group members
compliance -- ascending to a norm in order to attain rewards or avoid punishment
identification -- associating oneself with supporters of a norm and conforming to the norm because of those individuals do
internalization -- the leading that the behavior dictated by a norm is truly the right and proper way to behave
idiosyncrasy credit -- the freedom to violate group norms without being punished that is accorded to group members who have contributed a lot to the group in the past
deviance -- deviation from the norm
socialization -- the process by which newcomers learn the roles, rules, and norms of a group
role orientation -- the characteristic way in which members of her group respond to various situations
institutionalized role orientation -- a role orientation in which newcomers are taught to respond to situations in the same way that existing group members respond to similar situations
individualized role orientation -- a role orientation in which newcomers are taught that it is acceptable and desirable to be creative and to experiment with changing how the group does things
Summary
Workgroups are the basic building blocks of an organization. Workgroups use roles, rules, and norms to control their members behavior, and they use several socialization tactics to turn newcomers into effect of group members. Groups contribute to organizational effectiveness when group goals are aligned with organizational goals.
To a tribute separate workgroups from random collections of individuals and organization. Members of the workgroup interact with each other and perceive the potential for mutual goal accomplished that. Workgroups very and whether they are formal or informal. Formal workgroups include command groups, task forces, teams, and self managed work teams. In formal workgroups include friendship groups and interest groups. Teams are characterized by intense interactions between team members to achieve team goals.
Groups develop and change over time. The five stage model of group development proposes that groups develop in five sequential stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjoining. Research, however, has not indicated that there is a universal set of stages that all groups experience in the same order.
Five important characteristics of groups are size, composition, function, status, and group efficacy. Each has the potential to affect the extent to which a group achieves its goals, performs a high level, and ultimately is effective in helping an organization attained its goals. Social facilitation is a characteristic affect that the presence of other group members has on individual performance such that having others present enhances performance of well-earned tasks and impairs performance of difficult tasks.
All groups, regardless of their type or characteristics, need to control their members behaviors to be effective and attain their goals. Rules and rules can be used to control behavior in groups.
A role is a set of behaviors recast that a person is expected to perform by virtue of holding a position in a group or organization. Roles have rights and responsibilities attached to them. Role relationships are the way in which groups and organizational members interact with each other to perform their specific roles. Group members are choir rolls through rulemaking and through role taking.
Written roles specify behaviors that are required of group members or that are for bin. They also specify how particular tasks should be performed.
Groups also control the members behavior by developing in enforcing group norms. Group norms are shared expectations for behavior within a group. There are three basis for conformity to group norms: compliance, identification, and internalization.
To accomplish goals and perform at high level, groups need both conformity to and deviance from norms. Whether group norms result in high levels of group performance depends on the extent to which group goals are consistent with organizational goals. To facilitate goal all linemen, group members should benefit or be rewarded when the group performs a high level and contributes to the achievement of organizational goals.
Group members learn roles, roles and norms through the process of socialization. Collective, formal, sequential, fixed, serial, and divestiture socialization tactics tend to lead to an institutionalized role orientation. Individual, informal, random, veritable, disjunctive, and investiture socialization tactics tend to lead to an individualized role orientation.
group goal -- a goal that all or most members of her group can agree on as a common goal
formal workgroup -- a group established by management to help the organization achieve its goals
informal workgroup -- a group that emerges naturally when individuals perceive that membership in a group will help them achieve their goals are meet their needs
command group -- a formal workgroup consisting of subordinates who reports the same supervisor
task force -- a formal workgroup consisting of people come together to compost a specific goal
team -- a formal workgroup consisting of people who worked intensely together to achieve a common group goal
self managed work team -- a formal workgroup consisting of people who are jointly responsible for ensuring that the team accomplishes its goals and who lead themselves
friendship group -- a informal workgroup consisting of people who enjoy each other's company and socialize with each other on and off the job
interest group -- an informal workgroup consisting of people who come together because they have a common goal or objective related to their organizational membership
division of labor -- dividing of work and assigning particular task to specific workers
homogeneous group -- a group in which members have many characteristics in common
heterogeneous group -- a group in which members have few characteristics in common
group function -- the work that a group performance as its contribution to the accomplishment of organizational goals
group status -- the implicity agreed upon, perceived importance for the organization as a whole of what are group does
group efficacy -- the shared belief group members how about the ability of the group to achieve its goals and objectives
social facilitation -- the effects that the presence of others have on performance, enhancing the performance of easy tasks and impairing the performance of difficult tasks
role relationships -- the ways in which group and organizational members interact with one another to perform their specific roles
role making -- taking the initiative to create a role by assuming responsibilities that are not part of an assigned role
role taking -- performing the responsibilities that are required as part of an assigned role
group norms -- in formal rules of conduct or behaviors considered important by most group members
compliance -- ascending to a norm in order to attain rewards or avoid punishment
identification -- associating oneself with supporters of a norm and conforming to the norm because of those individuals do
internalization -- the leading that the behavior dictated by a norm is truly the right and proper way to behave
idiosyncrasy credit -- the freedom to violate group norms without being punished that is accorded to group members who have contributed a lot to the group in the past
deviance -- deviation from the norm
socialization -- the process by which newcomers learn the roles, rules, and norms of a group
role orientation -- the characteristic way in which members of her group respond to various situations
institutionalized role orientation -- a role orientation in which newcomers are taught to respond to situations in the same way that existing group members respond to similar situations
individualized role orientation -- a role orientation in which newcomers are taught that it is acceptable and desirable to be creative and to experiment with changing how the group does things
Summary
Workgroups are the basic building blocks of an organization. Workgroups use roles, rules, and norms to control their members behavior, and they use several socialization tactics to turn newcomers into effect of group members. Groups contribute to organizational effectiveness when group goals are aligned with organizational goals.
To a tribute separate workgroups from random collections of individuals and organization. Members of the workgroup interact with each other and perceive the potential for mutual goal accomplished that. Workgroups very and whether they are formal or informal. Formal workgroups include command groups, task forces, teams, and self managed work teams. In formal workgroups include friendship groups and interest groups. Teams are characterized by intense interactions between team members to achieve team goals.
Groups develop and change over time. The five stage model of group development proposes that groups develop in five sequential stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjoining. Research, however, has not indicated that there is a universal set of stages that all groups experience in the same order.
Five important characteristics of groups are size, composition, function, status, and group efficacy. Each has the potential to affect the extent to which a group achieves its goals, performs a high level, and ultimately is effective in helping an organization attained its goals. Social facilitation is a characteristic affect that the presence of other group members has on individual performance such that having others present enhances performance of well-earned tasks and impairs performance of difficult tasks.
All groups, regardless of their type or characteristics, need to control their members behaviors to be effective and attain their goals. Rules and rules can be used to control behavior in groups.
A role is a set of behaviors recast that a person is expected to perform by virtue of holding a position in a group or organization. Roles have rights and responsibilities attached to them. Role relationships are the way in which groups and organizational members interact with each other to perform their specific roles. Group members are choir rolls through rulemaking and through role taking.
Written roles specify behaviors that are required of group members or that are for bin. They also specify how particular tasks should be performed.
Groups also control the members behavior by developing in enforcing group norms. Group norms are shared expectations for behavior within a group. There are three basis for conformity to group norms: compliance, identification, and internalization.
To accomplish goals and perform at high level, groups need both conformity to and deviance from norms. Whether group norms result in high levels of group performance depends on the extent to which group goals are consistent with organizational goals. To facilitate goal all linemen, group members should benefit or be rewarded when the group performs a high level and contributes to the achievement of organizational goals.
Group members learn roles, roles and norms through the process of socialization. Collective, formal, sequential, fixed, serial, and divestiture socialization tactics tend to lead to an institutionalized role orientation. Individual, informal, random, veritable, disjunctive, and investiture socialization tactics tend to lead to an individualized role orientation.
Organizational behavior chapter 8
Psychological contract -- an employee's perception of his or her exchange relationship with an organization, out comes the organization has promised to provide to the employee, and contributions the employee is obligated to make to the organization
realistic job preview (RJP) -- an honest assessment of the advantages and disadvantages of the particular job and working in a particular organization
transactional contracts -- tend to be short-term and very specific
relational contracts -- long-term, more general, and evolve more gradually over time
performance appraisal -- evaluating performance to encourage employee motivation in performance and to provide information to be used in managerial decision-making
objective measures -- measures that are based on facts
subjective measures -- measures that are based on individual perceptions
graphic rating scale -- a subjective measure on which performance is evaluated along a continuum
behaviorally anchored rating scale (BARS) -- a subjective measure on which specific work related behaviors are evaluated
behavioral observation scale (BOS) -- a subjective measure on which the frequency with which an employee performs a behavior is indicated
360° appraisal -- a performance appraisal in which an employee's performance is evaluated by a number of people who are in a position to evaluate the employee's performance such as peers, superiors, subordinates, and customers or clients
merit pay plan -- a plan that bases pay on performance
comparable worth -- the idea that jobs of equivalent value to organization should carry the same pay rates regardless of differences in the work and the personal characteristics of the employee
career -- the sum of work related experiences throw a person's lifetime
boundaryless career -- a career that is not tied to a single organization in which a person has a variety of kinds of work experiences in different organizations
steady-state careers -- reflects a one-time commitment to a certain kind of job that is maintained throughout one's working life
linear careers -- a person progresses through a sequence of jobs, and each job entails progress over the prior one in terms of responsibility, skills needed, level of hierarchy of an organization, and so on
Spiral careers -- a person holds different types of jobs that build on each other but tend to be fundamentally different
transitory careers -- changes jobs frequently, and each job is different from the one before
career goals -- the experiences, positions, or jobs that employees would like to have in the course of their careers
career plateau -- a position from which the chances of obtaining a promotion or a job with more responsibility become very small
Summary
the relation between employees in an organization is an exchange relationship that is embodied in the employee's psychological contracts. Accurate performance appraisals are essential for the fulfillment of psychological contracts and motivated workforce. Pay and career opportunities are two of the most important outcomes in the exchange relationship between employees in organization and have important implications for motivation.
A psychological contract is an employee's perception of his or her exchange relationship with an organization, out comes the organization has promised to provide to the employee, and contributions the employee is obligated to make to the organization. The determinants of psychological contracts include direct communication, observation, and written documents. The two major types of psychological contracts are transactional contracts and relational contracts.
The goals of performance appraisal are to encourage high levels of employing motivation and performance and to provide accurate information to be used in managerial decision-making. Performance appraisal can focus on the assessment of traits, behaviors, or results, be formal or informal, and rely on objective or subjective measures. Supervisors most often appraise the performance of their subordinates.
Pay is an important outcome for most employees. Motivation and learning theory suggests that patient be based on performance. When individual performance can be accurately assessed, the maximum motivational impact is obtained from basing pay on individual performance. When employees are highly interdependent, individual levels of performance cannot be accurately appraise, or high levels of cooperation across employees are desired, it can be advantageous to base pay on group or organizational performance.
Merit pay in the form of bonuses generally is preferable to salary increases because salary levels have multiple determinants in addition to current performance. The ethics of pay differentials in comparable worth are important issues that managers face in using pay as a motivational toll and striving for the equitable distribution of pay in organizations. In paragraph a career can be defined as the sum of work related experiences throughout one's lifetime. Affective career management helps to ensure that members of an organization are motivated to perform at a high level and received a career opportunities they should while also ensuring that the organization is making the best use of its human resources.
For general types of careers are steady-state careers, linear careers, Spyro careers, and transitory careers. Increasingly, careers are boundaryless meaning that people have a variety of kinds of work experience in different organizations during their careers. Careers can be thought of as progressing through stages, although each individual's career is somewhat unique and these stages are not necessarily experienced by all people. At each stage, organizations and individuals can take steps to ensure high levels of employing motivation and affective career management.
The five stages are:
the early career stage is made up of two steps: establishment and achievement. Mentors and career goals can be especially helpful to employees during this achievement step.
Contemporary career challenges include ethical career management, career management that supports diversity, and career management and an era of dual career couples (acknowledges the many demands on employees arising from their jobs and personal lives).
realistic job preview (RJP) -- an honest assessment of the advantages and disadvantages of the particular job and working in a particular organization
transactional contracts -- tend to be short-term and very specific
relational contracts -- long-term, more general, and evolve more gradually over time
performance appraisal -- evaluating performance to encourage employee motivation in performance and to provide information to be used in managerial decision-making
objective measures -- measures that are based on facts
subjective measures -- measures that are based on individual perceptions
graphic rating scale -- a subjective measure on which performance is evaluated along a continuum
behaviorally anchored rating scale (BARS) -- a subjective measure on which specific work related behaviors are evaluated
behavioral observation scale (BOS) -- a subjective measure on which the frequency with which an employee performs a behavior is indicated
360° appraisal -- a performance appraisal in which an employee's performance is evaluated by a number of people who are in a position to evaluate the employee's performance such as peers, superiors, subordinates, and customers or clients
merit pay plan -- a plan that bases pay on performance
comparable worth -- the idea that jobs of equivalent value to organization should carry the same pay rates regardless of differences in the work and the personal characteristics of the employee
career -- the sum of work related experiences throw a person's lifetime
boundaryless career -- a career that is not tied to a single organization in which a person has a variety of kinds of work experiences in different organizations
steady-state careers -- reflects a one-time commitment to a certain kind of job that is maintained throughout one's working life
linear careers -- a person progresses through a sequence of jobs, and each job entails progress over the prior one in terms of responsibility, skills needed, level of hierarchy of an organization, and so on
Spiral careers -- a person holds different types of jobs that build on each other but tend to be fundamentally different
transitory careers -- changes jobs frequently, and each job is different from the one before
career goals -- the experiences, positions, or jobs that employees would like to have in the course of their careers
career plateau -- a position from which the chances of obtaining a promotion or a job with more responsibility become very small
Summary
the relation between employees in an organization is an exchange relationship that is embodied in the employee's psychological contracts. Accurate performance appraisals are essential for the fulfillment of psychological contracts and motivated workforce. Pay and career opportunities are two of the most important outcomes in the exchange relationship between employees in organization and have important implications for motivation.
A psychological contract is an employee's perception of his or her exchange relationship with an organization, out comes the organization has promised to provide to the employee, and contributions the employee is obligated to make to the organization. The determinants of psychological contracts include direct communication, observation, and written documents. The two major types of psychological contracts are transactional contracts and relational contracts.
The goals of performance appraisal are to encourage high levels of employing motivation and performance and to provide accurate information to be used in managerial decision-making. Performance appraisal can focus on the assessment of traits, behaviors, or results, be formal or informal, and rely on objective or subjective measures. Supervisors most often appraise the performance of their subordinates.
Pay is an important outcome for most employees. Motivation and learning theory suggests that patient be based on performance. When individual performance can be accurately assessed, the maximum motivational impact is obtained from basing pay on individual performance. When employees are highly interdependent, individual levels of performance cannot be accurately appraise, or high levels of cooperation across employees are desired, it can be advantageous to base pay on group or organizational performance.
Merit pay in the form of bonuses generally is preferable to salary increases because salary levels have multiple determinants in addition to current performance. The ethics of pay differentials in comparable worth are important issues that managers face in using pay as a motivational toll and striving for the equitable distribution of pay in organizations. In paragraph a career can be defined as the sum of work related experiences throughout one's lifetime. Affective career management helps to ensure that members of an organization are motivated to perform at a high level and received a career opportunities they should while also ensuring that the organization is making the best use of its human resources.
For general types of careers are steady-state careers, linear careers, Spyro careers, and transitory careers. Increasingly, careers are boundaryless meaning that people have a variety of kinds of work experience in different organizations during their careers. Careers can be thought of as progressing through stages, although each individual's career is somewhat unique and these stages are not necessarily experienced by all people. At each stage, organizations and individuals can take steps to ensure high levels of employing motivation and affective career management.
The five stages are:
- preparation for work
- organizational entry
- early career
- midcareer
- late career
the early career stage is made up of two steps: establishment and achievement. Mentors and career goals can be especially helpful to employees during this achievement step.
Contemporary career challenges include ethical career management, career management that supports diversity, and career management and an era of dual career couples (acknowledges the many demands on employees arising from their jobs and personal lives).
Organizational behavior chapter 7
Job design -- the process of linking specific tasks to specific jobs in deciding what techniques, equipment, and procedures should be used to perform those tasks
scientific management -- a set of principles and practices designed to increase the performance of individual employees by stressing job simplification and specialization
job simplification -- the breaking up of the work that needs to be performed an organization into the smallest identifiable tasks
job specialization -- the assignment of employees to perform small, simple tasks
time and motion studies -- studies that reveal exactly how long it takes to perform a task and the best way to perform it
job enlargement -- increasing the number of tasks employee performs a keeping all the tasks at the same level of difficulty and responsibility; also called horizontal job loading
job enrichment -- increasing an employee's responsibility and control over his or her work; also called vertical job loading
job characteristics model -- an approach to job design that aims to identify characteristics that make jobs intrinsically motivating and the consequences of those characteristics
skill variety -- the extent to which a job requires an employee to use different skills, abilities, or talents
task identity -- the extent to which a job involves performing a whole piece of work from its beginning to its end
task significance -- the extent to which a job has the impact on the lives or work of other people in or out of the organization
autonomy -- the degree to which a job allows an employee that freedom and independence to schedule work and decide how to carry it out
feedback -- the extent to which performing a job provides an employee with clear information about his or her effectiveness
motivating potential score (MPS) -- a measure of the overall potential of a job to foster intrinsic motivation
experienced meaningfulness of the work -- the degree to which employees feel their jobs are important, worthwhile, a meaningful
experienced responsibility for work outcomes -- the extent to which employees feel personally responsible or accountable for their job performance
knowledge of results -- the degree to which employees know how well they perform their jobs on a continuous basis
social information processing model -- an approach to job design based on the idea that information from other people and employees own past behaviors influence employees perceptions of and responses to the designed of their jobs
contingent workers -- employees whom organizations hire or contract on a temporary basis to fill needs for labor that change over time
organizational objectives -- the goals and purpose of an organization, what it stands for, and what it seeks to accomplish
social identity theory -- a theory that describes how individuals use the groups and organizations they are members of to define themselves
goal -- what an individual is trying to accomplish through his or her behavior and actions
goal setting theory -- a theory that focuses on identifying the types of goals that are most effective in producing high levels of motivation in performance and why goals have these effects
management by objectives (MBO) -- a goal setting process in which a manager meets with his or her supervisor to set goals and a valuing the extent to which previously set goals have been achieved
Summary
job design and goal setting are the foundations of a motivating work setting. The ways in which jobs are designed and the types of goals are set can have profound effects on employee motivation and performance in the extent to which an organization is able to achieve its goals.
One of the earliest systematic approaches to job design was scientific management, which stresses job simplification and job specialization. Scientific management focuses on extrinsic motivation and can result in an efficient production process. It also may result in high levels of job dissatisfaction.
Job enlargement and job enrichment focus, respectively, on the horizontal and vertical loading of jobs. Each attempts, by raising levels of intrinsic motivation, to overcome some of the problems that arise when jobs are designed according to the principles of scientific management.
The job characteristics model also focuses on intrinsic motivation. The model proposes that five core dimensions (skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback) lead to three critical psychological states (experienced meaningfulness of work, experienced responsibility for work outcomes, and knowledge of results) that in turn lead to several outcomes (intrinsic motivation, job performance, job satisfaction, and low absenteeism and turnover). Individual differences (growth need strength, knowledge and skills, and satisfaction with the work context) affect the key relationships in the model. Research suggests that intrinsic motivation and job satisfaction do tend result from the core characteristics and psychological states as proposed by the model; however, job performance is not necessarily affected.
The social information processing model suggests that social environment provides employees with information about which aspects of their job design and work outcomes they should pay attention to and how they should evaluate them. This information influences motivation. In addition, employees past behaviors have implications for how they view their current jobs and current levels of motivation, particularly when these past behaviors were freely chosen or entailed personal sacrifices.
Goal setting theory and research suggests that specific, difficult goals lead to higher motivation and performance than do easy goals, moderate goals, vague goals, or no goals at all. Specific, difficult goals influence motivation performance by directing employs attention toward goal relevant activities, influencing effort expenditure, influencing levels of persistence, and causing employees to develop action plans. When employees are performing very complicated and difficult tasks that require all of their attention and considerable amount of learning, specific, difficult goals should not be set until the employee has mastered the task.
Goal setting -- the manager and the supervisor me and jointly determine goals the manager will try to achieve during a specific period.
Implementation -- the manager is given the autonomy to decide how to meet the goals, but progress toward goal attainment is periodically assess and discussed by the manager and supervisor.
Evaluation -- the manager of the supervisor me to assess the extent of goal attainment, discuss with some goals have not been attained, and set goals for the next.
scientific management -- a set of principles and practices designed to increase the performance of individual employees by stressing job simplification and specialization
job simplification -- the breaking up of the work that needs to be performed an organization into the smallest identifiable tasks
job specialization -- the assignment of employees to perform small, simple tasks
time and motion studies -- studies that reveal exactly how long it takes to perform a task and the best way to perform it
job enlargement -- increasing the number of tasks employee performs a keeping all the tasks at the same level of difficulty and responsibility; also called horizontal job loading
job enrichment -- increasing an employee's responsibility and control over his or her work; also called vertical job loading
job characteristics model -- an approach to job design that aims to identify characteristics that make jobs intrinsically motivating and the consequences of those characteristics
skill variety -- the extent to which a job requires an employee to use different skills, abilities, or talents
task identity -- the extent to which a job involves performing a whole piece of work from its beginning to its end
task significance -- the extent to which a job has the impact on the lives or work of other people in or out of the organization
autonomy -- the degree to which a job allows an employee that freedom and independence to schedule work and decide how to carry it out
feedback -- the extent to which performing a job provides an employee with clear information about his or her effectiveness
motivating potential score (MPS) -- a measure of the overall potential of a job to foster intrinsic motivation
experienced meaningfulness of the work -- the degree to which employees feel their jobs are important, worthwhile, a meaningful
experienced responsibility for work outcomes -- the extent to which employees feel personally responsible or accountable for their job performance
knowledge of results -- the degree to which employees know how well they perform their jobs on a continuous basis
social information processing model -- an approach to job design based on the idea that information from other people and employees own past behaviors influence employees perceptions of and responses to the designed of their jobs
contingent workers -- employees whom organizations hire or contract on a temporary basis to fill needs for labor that change over time
organizational objectives -- the goals and purpose of an organization, what it stands for, and what it seeks to accomplish
social identity theory -- a theory that describes how individuals use the groups and organizations they are members of to define themselves
goal -- what an individual is trying to accomplish through his or her behavior and actions
goal setting theory -- a theory that focuses on identifying the types of goals that are most effective in producing high levels of motivation in performance and why goals have these effects
management by objectives (MBO) -- a goal setting process in which a manager meets with his or her supervisor to set goals and a valuing the extent to which previously set goals have been achieved
Summary
job design and goal setting are the foundations of a motivating work setting. The ways in which jobs are designed and the types of goals are set can have profound effects on employee motivation and performance in the extent to which an organization is able to achieve its goals.
One of the earliest systematic approaches to job design was scientific management, which stresses job simplification and job specialization. Scientific management focuses on extrinsic motivation and can result in an efficient production process. It also may result in high levels of job dissatisfaction.
Job enlargement and job enrichment focus, respectively, on the horizontal and vertical loading of jobs. Each attempts, by raising levels of intrinsic motivation, to overcome some of the problems that arise when jobs are designed according to the principles of scientific management.
The job characteristics model also focuses on intrinsic motivation. The model proposes that five core dimensions (skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback) lead to three critical psychological states (experienced meaningfulness of work, experienced responsibility for work outcomes, and knowledge of results) that in turn lead to several outcomes (intrinsic motivation, job performance, job satisfaction, and low absenteeism and turnover). Individual differences (growth need strength, knowledge and skills, and satisfaction with the work context) affect the key relationships in the model. Research suggests that intrinsic motivation and job satisfaction do tend result from the core characteristics and psychological states as proposed by the model; however, job performance is not necessarily affected.
The social information processing model suggests that social environment provides employees with information about which aspects of their job design and work outcomes they should pay attention to and how they should evaluate them. This information influences motivation. In addition, employees past behaviors have implications for how they view their current jobs and current levels of motivation, particularly when these past behaviors were freely chosen or entailed personal sacrifices.
Goal setting theory and research suggests that specific, difficult goals lead to higher motivation and performance than do easy goals, moderate goals, vague goals, or no goals at all. Specific, difficult goals influence motivation performance by directing employs attention toward goal relevant activities, influencing effort expenditure, influencing levels of persistence, and causing employees to develop action plans. When employees are performing very complicated and difficult tasks that require all of their attention and considerable amount of learning, specific, difficult goals should not be set until the employee has mastered the task.
Goal setting -- the manager and the supervisor me and jointly determine goals the manager will try to achieve during a specific period.
Implementation -- the manager is given the autonomy to decide how to meet the goals, but progress toward goal attainment is periodically assess and discussed by the manager and supervisor.
Evaluation -- the manager of the supervisor me to assess the extent of goal attainment, discuss with some goals have not been attained, and set goals for the next.
Friday, September 29, 2006
Unit 2 Notes
Motivation
Organizational behavior is a field of study in business that has grown out of the traditional social sciences. Organizational behavior is the study of human behavior, attitudes, and performance in organizations. It is interdisciplinary, drawing concepts from the social and clinical psychology, sociology, cultural anthropology and organizational psychology. It is a field of study that focuses on observable behaviors and internal mental states. Studying organizational behavior will help you attain the competencies needed to be an effective employee, team leader, and/or manager. The knowledge and skills you gain should help you diagnose, understand, and explain what is happening around you in your job.
Work Motivation
Motivation is the set of forces that cause people to choose certain behaviors from among the many alternatives open to them. The success of every organization depends on the ability of managers to provide a motivating environment for its employees. Motivated employees are more productive, happier, and stay with the organization longer. Work motivation is the direction, intensity, and persistence of work-related behaviors desired by the organization or its representatives. This emphasizes the determinants and processes that underlie behavior. In his 1998 article "Management's New Paradigms," Peter F. Drucker argues against the traditional view that the essential managerial task is to tell workers what to do. Thus managers today must direct people and lead workers instead of managing them.
Theories of Motivation
Motivation theorists assume that motivation is involved in the performance of all learned responses; that is, a learned behavior will not occur unless it is energized. The most common theories of motivation in organizational behavior include Abraham Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory, Douglas McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y, Frederick Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory, and the contributions of Elton Mayo that encouraged researchers to study human motivation and the managerial styles that lead to greater productivity.
Job Design
Job design is defined as determining the most efficient way to execute tasks. An employee's job is made up of a set of tasks grouped together under one job title. Thus, tasks represent the most basic building blocks of the relationship between employees and the organization, and are composed of the set of prescribed work activities a person normally performs during a typical work period. Job design can be traced back to views that emerged in the United Kingdom around the time of the Industrial Revolution. Some promoted the division of labor or the breaking down of complex jobs into simpler jobs as a way of enhancing performance. The added advantages of such job simplification include the requirement of less skilled and, hence, cheaper labor.
Goal Setting
Instead of giving people vague tasks, specific and pronounced objectives help in achieving them faster. The clarity is high, so goal orientation also avoids any misunderstandings in the work of the employees. The premise of goal setting theory in organizational behavior is that specifying, setting, and assigning difficult goals for employees, when accepted or generated by the employees, usually leads to improved and increased performance. Thus, the goal setting theory states that when the goals to be achieved are set at a higher standard, then in that case employees are motivated to perform better and put in maximum effort. It revolves around the concept of "Self-efficacy;" in other words, an individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a difficult task. Thus, goals motivate by focusing employees' attention, increasing their effort, and increasing their diligence. Nonetheless, there are drawbacks of the goal-setting approach. Theory such as goal setting will be adversely affected if the employees' tasks become less enjoyable as a result of unattainable and rigid goals. This will retard and impede the organization’s progress.
Performance Appraisal
One of the most controversial and powerful tools at a manager's disposal is the performance appraisal. It can be used as a tool of negative power or one of positive powerful feedback. Traditional performance appraisals are hierarchical. The most effective performance appraisals do not just occur annually; informal versions occur continuously via casual feedback. Ideally, performance appraisal allows management to specify what employees must do, and combines feedback and goal setting.
Organizational behavior is a field of study in business that has grown out of the traditional social sciences. Organizational behavior is the study of human behavior, attitudes, and performance in organizations. It is interdisciplinary, drawing concepts from the social and clinical psychology, sociology, cultural anthropology and organizational psychology. It is a field of study that focuses on observable behaviors and internal mental states. Studying organizational behavior will help you attain the competencies needed to be an effective employee, team leader, and/or manager. The knowledge and skills you gain should help you diagnose, understand, and explain what is happening around you in your job.
Work Motivation
Motivation is the set of forces that cause people to choose certain behaviors from among the many alternatives open to them. The success of every organization depends on the ability of managers to provide a motivating environment for its employees. Motivated employees are more productive, happier, and stay with the organization longer. Work motivation is the direction, intensity, and persistence of work-related behaviors desired by the organization or its representatives. This emphasizes the determinants and processes that underlie behavior. In his 1998 article "Management's New Paradigms," Peter F. Drucker argues against the traditional view that the essential managerial task is to tell workers what to do. Thus managers today must direct people and lead workers instead of managing them.
Theories of Motivation
Motivation theorists assume that motivation is involved in the performance of all learned responses; that is, a learned behavior will not occur unless it is energized. The most common theories of motivation in organizational behavior include Abraham Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory, Douglas McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y, Frederick Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory, and the contributions of Elton Mayo that encouraged researchers to study human motivation and the managerial styles that lead to greater productivity.
Job Design
Job design is defined as determining the most efficient way to execute tasks. An employee's job is made up of a set of tasks grouped together under one job title. Thus, tasks represent the most basic building blocks of the relationship between employees and the organization, and are composed of the set of prescribed work activities a person normally performs during a typical work period. Job design can be traced back to views that emerged in the United Kingdom around the time of the Industrial Revolution. Some promoted the division of labor or the breaking down of complex jobs into simpler jobs as a way of enhancing performance. The added advantages of such job simplification include the requirement of less skilled and, hence, cheaper labor.
Goal Setting
Instead of giving people vague tasks, specific and pronounced objectives help in achieving them faster. The clarity is high, so goal orientation also avoids any misunderstandings in the work of the employees. The premise of goal setting theory in organizational behavior is that specifying, setting, and assigning difficult goals for employees, when accepted or generated by the employees, usually leads to improved and increased performance. Thus, the goal setting theory states that when the goals to be achieved are set at a higher standard, then in that case employees are motivated to perform better and put in maximum effort. It revolves around the concept of "Self-efficacy;" in other words, an individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a difficult task. Thus, goals motivate by focusing employees' attention, increasing their effort, and increasing their diligence. Nonetheless, there are drawbacks of the goal-setting approach. Theory such as goal setting will be adversely affected if the employees' tasks become less enjoyable as a result of unattainable and rigid goals. This will retard and impede the organization’s progress.
Performance Appraisal
One of the most controversial and powerful tools at a manager's disposal is the performance appraisal. It can be used as a tool of negative power or one of positive powerful feedback. Traditional performance appraisals are hierarchical. The most effective performance appraisals do not just occur annually; informal versions occur continuously via casual feedback. Ideally, performance appraisal allows management to specify what employees must do, and combines feedback and goal setting.
Organizational behavior chapter 6
Work motivation -- psychological forces that determine the direction of a person's behavior in an organization, a person's level of effort, and the person's level of persistence
direction of behavior -- which behaviors does a person choose to perform an organization (example -- as an engineer take the time and effort to convince skeptical superiors of the need to change the design specifications for new product to lower production costs?)
Level of effort -- how hard does a person were to perform at a chosen behavior? (Example -- doesn't engineer prepare a report outlining problems with the original specifications, or does the engineer casually mention the issue when he or she bumps into a supervisor in the hall and hope that the supervisor will take the advice on faith?)
Level of persistence -- when faced with obstacles, roadblocks, and stone walls, how hard is a person keep trying to perform a chosen behavior successfully? (Example -- when the superior disagrees with the engineer and indicates that a change in specifications is a waste of time, does the engineer persists in trying to get the change implemented or give up despite his or her strong belief in the need for change?)
Intrinsically motivated work behavior -- behavior that is performed for its own sake
extrinsically motivated work behavior -- behavior that is performed to acquire material or social rewards or to avoid punishment
need theory -- a group of content theories about work motivation that focuses on employees need to as the source of motivation
need -- a requirement for survival and well-being
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
self actualization needs -- needs to realize once full potential as a human being
esteem needs -- needs to feel good about oneself and one's capabilities, to be respected, receive recognition and appreciation
belongingness needs -- need for social interaction, friendship, affection and love
safety needs -- needs for security, stability, and a safe environment
psychological needs -- basic needs for things such as food, water, and shutter that must be met in order to survive
Alderder's ERG theory
growth needs -- need for self-development creativeness and productive work
relatedness needs -- needs to have good interpersonal relations, to share thoughts and feelings, and to have open to a communication
existence needs -- basic needs for human survival such as the need for food, water, clothing, shelter, and a secure and safe environment
Expectancy theory -- a process theory about work motivation that focuses on how employees make choices among alternative behaviors and levels of effort
valence -- in expectancy theory, the desirability of an outcome to an individual
instrumentality -- in expectancy theory, a perception about the extent to which performance of one or more behaviors will lead to the attainment of a particular outcome
expectancy -- in expectancy theory, a perception about the extent to which effort will result in a certain level of performance
equity theory -- a process theory about work motivation that focuses on employees perceptions of the fairness of their work outcomes and inputs
outcome/input ratio -- in equity theory, the relationship between what an employee gets from a job (outcomes) and what the employee contributes to the job (inputs)
overpayment inequity -- the inequity that exists when a person perceives that his or her outcomes/input ratio is greater than the ratio of referent
underpayment inequity -- the inequity that exists when a person perceives that his or her outcomes/input ratio is less than the ratio of a referent
procedural justice theory -- a process theory about work motivation that focuses on employees perceptions of the fairness of the procedures used to make decisions about the distribution of outcomes
Summary
Work motivation explains why employees behave as they do. For prominent theories about work motivation -- need theory, expectancy theory, equity theory and procedual theory -- provide complementary approaches to understanding and managing motivation and organizations. Each theory answers different questions about the motivational process.
Work motivation is a psychological force within a person that determines the direction of the person's behavior in an organization, the person's level of effort, and the person's level of persistence and the face of obstacles. Motivation is distinct from performance; other factors besides motivation (for example, ability and task difficulty) influence performance.
Intrinsically motivated behavior is behavior performed for its own sake. Extrinsically motivated behavior is behavior performed to acquire material or social rewards or to avoid punishment.
Need theories of motivation identify the needs that employees are motivated to satisfy on the job. Two major need theories of motivation are Maslow's hierarchy of needs and Alderfer's existence- relatedness- growth theory.
Expectancy theory focuses on how employees decide what behaviors to engage in on-the-job and how much effort to exert. The three major concepts in expectancy theory are valence, instrumentality, and expectancy about the extent to which effort will result in a certain level of performance.
Equity theory proposes that employees compare their own outcome/input ratio to the outcome/input ratio of others. On equal ratios create tension inside the employee, and the employee is motivated to restore equity. When the ratios are equal, employees are motivated to maintain their current ratio of outcomes and inputs or raise their inputs if they want their outcomes to increase.
Procedural justice theory is concerned with the perceived fairness of the procedures to make decisions about inputs, performance, and the distribution of outcomes. How managers treat their subordinates and the extent to which they provide explanations for their decisions influence employees perceptions of procedural justice. When procedural justice is perceived below, motivation suffers because employees are not sure that their inputs and performance levels will be accurately assessed or the outcomes will be distributed in a fair manner.
direction of behavior -- which behaviors does a person choose to perform an organization (example -- as an engineer take the time and effort to convince skeptical superiors of the need to change the design specifications for new product to lower production costs?)
Level of effort -- how hard does a person were to perform at a chosen behavior? (Example -- doesn't engineer prepare a report outlining problems with the original specifications, or does the engineer casually mention the issue when he or she bumps into a supervisor in the hall and hope that the supervisor will take the advice on faith?)
Level of persistence -- when faced with obstacles, roadblocks, and stone walls, how hard is a person keep trying to perform a chosen behavior successfully? (Example -- when the superior disagrees with the engineer and indicates that a change in specifications is a waste of time, does the engineer persists in trying to get the change implemented or give up despite his or her strong belief in the need for change?)
Intrinsically motivated work behavior -- behavior that is performed for its own sake
extrinsically motivated work behavior -- behavior that is performed to acquire material or social rewards or to avoid punishment
need theory -- a group of content theories about work motivation that focuses on employees need to as the source of motivation
need -- a requirement for survival and well-being
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
self actualization needs -- needs to realize once full potential as a human being
esteem needs -- needs to feel good about oneself and one's capabilities, to be respected, receive recognition and appreciation
belongingness needs -- need for social interaction, friendship, affection and love
safety needs -- needs for security, stability, and a safe environment
psychological needs -- basic needs for things such as food, water, and shutter that must be met in order to survive
Alderder's ERG theory
growth needs -- need for self-development creativeness and productive work
relatedness needs -- needs to have good interpersonal relations, to share thoughts and feelings, and to have open to a communication
existence needs -- basic needs for human survival such as the need for food, water, clothing, shelter, and a secure and safe environment
Expectancy theory -- a process theory about work motivation that focuses on how employees make choices among alternative behaviors and levels of effort
valence -- in expectancy theory, the desirability of an outcome to an individual
instrumentality -- in expectancy theory, a perception about the extent to which performance of one or more behaviors will lead to the attainment of a particular outcome
expectancy -- in expectancy theory, a perception about the extent to which effort will result in a certain level of performance
equity theory -- a process theory about work motivation that focuses on employees perceptions of the fairness of their work outcomes and inputs
outcome/input ratio -- in equity theory, the relationship between what an employee gets from a job (outcomes) and what the employee contributes to the job (inputs)
overpayment inequity -- the inequity that exists when a person perceives that his or her outcomes/input ratio is greater than the ratio of referent
underpayment inequity -- the inequity that exists when a person perceives that his or her outcomes/input ratio is less than the ratio of a referent
procedural justice theory -- a process theory about work motivation that focuses on employees perceptions of the fairness of the procedures used to make decisions about the distribution of outcomes
Summary
Work motivation explains why employees behave as they do. For prominent theories about work motivation -- need theory, expectancy theory, equity theory and procedual theory -- provide complementary approaches to understanding and managing motivation and organizations. Each theory answers different questions about the motivational process.
Work motivation is a psychological force within a person that determines the direction of the person's behavior in an organization, the person's level of effort, and the person's level of persistence and the face of obstacles. Motivation is distinct from performance; other factors besides motivation (for example, ability and task difficulty) influence performance.
Intrinsically motivated behavior is behavior performed for its own sake. Extrinsically motivated behavior is behavior performed to acquire material or social rewards or to avoid punishment.
Need theories of motivation identify the needs that employees are motivated to satisfy on the job. Two major need theories of motivation are Maslow's hierarchy of needs and Alderfer's existence- relatedness- growth theory.
Expectancy theory focuses on how employees decide what behaviors to engage in on-the-job and how much effort to exert. The three major concepts in expectancy theory are valence, instrumentality, and expectancy about the extent to which effort will result in a certain level of performance.
Equity theory proposes that employees compare their own outcome/input ratio to the outcome/input ratio of others. On equal ratios create tension inside the employee, and the employee is motivated to restore equity. When the ratios are equal, employees are motivated to maintain their current ratio of outcomes and inputs or raise their inputs if they want their outcomes to increase.
Procedural justice theory is concerned with the perceived fairness of the procedures to make decisions about inputs, performance, and the distribution of outcomes. How managers treat their subordinates and the extent to which they provide explanations for their decisions influence employees perceptions of procedural justice. When procedural justice is perceived below, motivation suffers because employees are not sure that their inputs and performance levels will be accurately assessed or the outcomes will be distributed in a fair manner.
Saturday, September 23, 2006
Organizational behavior -- Chapter 3
Values -- personal convictions about what one should strive for in life and how one should behave
work values -- an employee's personal convictions about what outcomes one should expect from work and how one should behave at work
intrinsic work values -- work values that are related to the nature of work itself
extrinsic work values -- work values that are related to the consequences of work
Examples
intrinsic work values --
interesting work
challenging
learning new things
making important contributions
reaching full potential
responsibility and autonomy
being creative
Extrinsic work values --
high pay
job security
job benefits
community status
social contacts
time with family
Time for hobbies
Ethical values -- one's personal convictions about what is right and wrong
utilitarian values -- values that dictate that decisions should be made so that the decisions produced the greatest good for the greatest number of people
moral rights values -- values that dictate that decisions should be made in ways that protect the fundamental rights and privileges of people unaffected by the decisions
Justice values -- values that dictate that the decisions should be made in ways that allocate benefits and harms among those affected by the decisions in a fair, equitable, or impartial manner
code of ethics -- a set of formal rules and standards, based on ethical values and beliefs about what is right and wrong, that employees can use to make appropriate decisions when the interests of other individuals or groups are at stake
whistleblower -- a person who informs people in positions of authority and/or the public of instances up wrongdoing, illegal behavior, or on ethical behavior in an organization
work attitudes -- collections of feelings, beliefs, and thought about how to behave in one's job and organization
job satisfaction -- a collection of feelings and beliefs that people have about their current jobs
organizational commitment -- the collection of feelings and beliefs that people have about their organization as a whole
work moods -- how people feel at the time they actually perform their jobs
emotions -- intense short-lived feelings that are linked to a specific cause or antecedent
emotional labor -- the work that employees perform to control their experience and expression of moods and emotions on the job
emotional dissonance -- an internal state that exists on employees are expected to express feelings that are at odds with how the employees are actually feeling
trust -- an expression of confidence and another person or group of people that you will not be put at risk, harmed, or injured by their actions
work situation -- the work itself, working conditions, and all other aspects of the job in the employing organization
social influence -- the influence that individuals or groups have on a person's attitudes and behavior
job facet -- 1 of the numerous components of a job
Job facets that play a part in determining job satisfaction
ability utilization -- the extent to which the job allows one to use their abilities
achievement -- feelings of accomplishment from the job
activity -- being able to keep busy
advancement -- promotional opportunities
authority -- having control or lack of over others
company policies and practices -- extent to which they are pleasing to the employee
compensation -- the amount paid
coworkers -- how well one gets along with others in the workplace
creativity -- having the freedom to come up with new ideas
Independence -- being able to work alone
moral values -- not having to do things that go against one's conscious
recognition -- praise for doing a good job
security -- knowing the job is secure or steady
social service -- being able to do things for other people
social status -- recognition in the wider community that goes along with the job
human relations supervision -- the interpersonal skills of one's boss
technical supervision -- the work related skills of one's boss
variety -- doing different things on the job
working conditions -- hours, temperature, furnishings, location, layout, and so forth
Turnover -- a permanent withdrawal of an employee from the employing organization
organizational citizenship behavior -- behavior that is not required but is necessary for organizational survival and effectiveness
employee well-being -- how happy, healthy, and prosperous employees are
affective commitment -- the commitment that exists when employees are happy to be members of an organization, believe in and feel good about the organization and what it stands for, are attached to the organization, and intend to do what is good for the organization
continuance commitment -- the commitment that exists when it is very costly for an employee to leave organization
-----------------------------------------------------------------
summary
Values, attitudes, and moods and emotions have important effects on organizational behavior. Values are unimportant determinant of on-the-job behavior. Job satisfaction and organizational commitment are two key work attitudes with important implications for understanding and managing behaviors such as organizational citizenship behavior, absenteeism, and turnover. Work moods and emotions are also important determinants of behavior in organizations.
Two important kinds of values that influence organizational behavior are work values and ethical values. Work attitudes, more specific and less long-lasting than values, are collections of feelings, beliefs, and thoughts that people have about how to behave in their current jobs and organizations. Work moods and emotions, more transitory than both values and attitudes, our people's feelings at the time they actually perform their jobs. Values, attitudes, and moods and emotions all have the potential to influence each other.
Work values are employee's personal convictions about what outcomes they should expect from work and how they should behave at work. There are two broad types of work values,, intrinsic work values and extrinsic work values. Intrinsic work values are values related to the work itself, such as doing something that is interesting and challenging or having a sense of accomplishment. Extrinsic work values are values related to the consequences of work, such as having family security or status in the community.
Ethical values are under employee's personal convictions about what is right or wrong. Three types of ethical values are utilitarian values, moral rights values, and Justice values. Utilitarian values dictate that decisions should be made so that the decision produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people. Moral rights values indicate that decisions should be made in ways that protect the fundamental rights and privileges of people affected by the decision. Justice values dictate that decisions should be made in ways that allocate benefits and harms among those affected by the decision and a fair, equitable, or impartial manner.
Two important work attitudes are job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Job satisfaction is a collection of feelings and beliefs that people have about their current jobs. Organizational commitment is the collection of feelings and beliefs that people have about their organization as a whole. Work attitudes have three components: an affective component, a cognitive component, and a behavioral component. People can have work attitudes about specific aspects of their jobs and organizations and about their jobs and organizations as a whole.
People experience many different moods at work. These moods can be categorized generally as positive or negative. When employees are in positive moods, they feel excited, enthusiastic, active, strong, or deleted. When employees are in negative mates, they feel distressed, fearful, scornful, hostile, jittery, or nervous. Employees also experience less intense moods at work, such as feeling sleepy or calm. Work moods are determined by personality and situation and have the potential to influence organizational behaviors ranging from absence to being helpful to customers and coworkers to creativity to leadership. Emotions are intense, short-lived feelings that are linked to a specific cause or antecedent. Emotional labor is the work that employees perform to control their experience an expression of moods and emotions on the job.
Job satisfaction is one of the most important and well researched attitudes and organizational behavior. Job satisfaction is determined by personality, values, the work situation, and social influence. Facet, discrepancy, and steady-state models a job satisfaction are useful for understanding and managing this important attitude.
Job satisfaction is not strongly related to job performance because employees are often not free to vary their levels of job performance and because sometimes job satisfaction is not relevant to job performance. Job satisfaction has a weak negative relationship to absenteeism. Job satisfaction influences turnover; employees who are satisfied with their jobs are less likely to quit them.
Furthermore, employees who are satisfied with their jobs are more likely to perform voluntary behaviors, known as organizational citizenship behavior, that contribute to organizational effectiveness. Job satisfaction also has a positive effect on employee well-being.
Organizational commitment is the collection of feelings and beliefs that people have about their organization as a whole. Affective commitment exists when employees are happy to be members of an organization and believe in what it stands for. Continuance commitment exists when employees are committed to the organization because it is too costly for them to leave. Affective commitment has more positive consequences for organizations and their members then continuance commitment. Affective commitment is more likely when organizations are socially responsible and demonstrate that they are committed to the employees. Employees with high levels of affective commitment are less likely to quit and maybe more likely to perform organizational citizenship behaviors.
work values -- an employee's personal convictions about what outcomes one should expect from work and how one should behave at work
intrinsic work values -- work values that are related to the nature of work itself
extrinsic work values -- work values that are related to the consequences of work
Examples
intrinsic work values --
interesting work
challenging
learning new things
making important contributions
reaching full potential
responsibility and autonomy
being creative
Extrinsic work values --
high pay
job security
job benefits
community status
social contacts
time with family
Time for hobbies
Ethical values -- one's personal convictions about what is right and wrong
utilitarian values -- values that dictate that decisions should be made so that the decisions produced the greatest good for the greatest number of people
moral rights values -- values that dictate that decisions should be made in ways that protect the fundamental rights and privileges of people unaffected by the decisions
Justice values -- values that dictate that the decisions should be made in ways that allocate benefits and harms among those affected by the decisions in a fair, equitable, or impartial manner
code of ethics -- a set of formal rules and standards, based on ethical values and beliefs about what is right and wrong, that employees can use to make appropriate decisions when the interests of other individuals or groups are at stake
whistleblower -- a person who informs people in positions of authority and/or the public of instances up wrongdoing, illegal behavior, or on ethical behavior in an organization
work attitudes -- collections of feelings, beliefs, and thought about how to behave in one's job and organization
job satisfaction -- a collection of feelings and beliefs that people have about their current jobs
organizational commitment -- the collection of feelings and beliefs that people have about their organization as a whole
work moods -- how people feel at the time they actually perform their jobs
emotions -- intense short-lived feelings that are linked to a specific cause or antecedent
emotional labor -- the work that employees perform to control their experience and expression of moods and emotions on the job
emotional dissonance -- an internal state that exists on employees are expected to express feelings that are at odds with how the employees are actually feeling
trust -- an expression of confidence and another person or group of people that you will not be put at risk, harmed, or injured by their actions
work situation -- the work itself, working conditions, and all other aspects of the job in the employing organization
social influence -- the influence that individuals or groups have on a person's attitudes and behavior
job facet -- 1 of the numerous components of a job
Job facets that play a part in determining job satisfaction
ability utilization -- the extent to which the job allows one to use their abilities
achievement -- feelings of accomplishment from the job
activity -- being able to keep busy
advancement -- promotional opportunities
authority -- having control or lack of over others
company policies and practices -- extent to which they are pleasing to the employee
compensation -- the amount paid
coworkers -- how well one gets along with others in the workplace
creativity -- having the freedom to come up with new ideas
Independence -- being able to work alone
moral values -- not having to do things that go against one's conscious
recognition -- praise for doing a good job
security -- knowing the job is secure or steady
social service -- being able to do things for other people
social status -- recognition in the wider community that goes along with the job
human relations supervision -- the interpersonal skills of one's boss
technical supervision -- the work related skills of one's boss
variety -- doing different things on the job
working conditions -- hours, temperature, furnishings, location, layout, and so forth
Turnover -- a permanent withdrawal of an employee from the employing organization
organizational citizenship behavior -- behavior that is not required but is necessary for organizational survival and effectiveness
employee well-being -- how happy, healthy, and prosperous employees are
affective commitment -- the commitment that exists when employees are happy to be members of an organization, believe in and feel good about the organization and what it stands for, are attached to the organization, and intend to do what is good for the organization
continuance commitment -- the commitment that exists when it is very costly for an employee to leave organization
-----------------------------------------------------------------
summary
Values, attitudes, and moods and emotions have important effects on organizational behavior. Values are unimportant determinant of on-the-job behavior. Job satisfaction and organizational commitment are two key work attitudes with important implications for understanding and managing behaviors such as organizational citizenship behavior, absenteeism, and turnover. Work moods and emotions are also important determinants of behavior in organizations.
Two important kinds of values that influence organizational behavior are work values and ethical values. Work attitudes, more specific and less long-lasting than values, are collections of feelings, beliefs, and thoughts that people have about how to behave in their current jobs and organizations. Work moods and emotions, more transitory than both values and attitudes, our people's feelings at the time they actually perform their jobs. Values, attitudes, and moods and emotions all have the potential to influence each other.
Work values are employee's personal convictions about what outcomes they should expect from work and how they should behave at work. There are two broad types of work values,, intrinsic work values and extrinsic work values. Intrinsic work values are values related to the work itself, such as doing something that is interesting and challenging or having a sense of accomplishment. Extrinsic work values are values related to the consequences of work, such as having family security or status in the community.
Ethical values are under employee's personal convictions about what is right or wrong. Three types of ethical values are utilitarian values, moral rights values, and Justice values. Utilitarian values dictate that decisions should be made so that the decision produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people. Moral rights values indicate that decisions should be made in ways that protect the fundamental rights and privileges of people affected by the decision. Justice values dictate that decisions should be made in ways that allocate benefits and harms among those affected by the decision and a fair, equitable, or impartial manner.
Two important work attitudes are job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Job satisfaction is a collection of feelings and beliefs that people have about their current jobs. Organizational commitment is the collection of feelings and beliefs that people have about their organization as a whole. Work attitudes have three components: an affective component, a cognitive component, and a behavioral component. People can have work attitudes about specific aspects of their jobs and organizations and about their jobs and organizations as a whole.
People experience many different moods at work. These moods can be categorized generally as positive or negative. When employees are in positive moods, they feel excited, enthusiastic, active, strong, or deleted. When employees are in negative mates, they feel distressed, fearful, scornful, hostile, jittery, or nervous. Employees also experience less intense moods at work, such as feeling sleepy or calm. Work moods are determined by personality and situation and have the potential to influence organizational behaviors ranging from absence to being helpful to customers and coworkers to creativity to leadership. Emotions are intense, short-lived feelings that are linked to a specific cause or antecedent. Emotional labor is the work that employees perform to control their experience an expression of moods and emotions on the job.
Job satisfaction is one of the most important and well researched attitudes and organizational behavior. Job satisfaction is determined by personality, values, the work situation, and social influence. Facet, discrepancy, and steady-state models a job satisfaction are useful for understanding and managing this important attitude.
Job satisfaction is not strongly related to job performance because employees are often not free to vary their levels of job performance and because sometimes job satisfaction is not relevant to job performance. Job satisfaction has a weak negative relationship to absenteeism. Job satisfaction influences turnover; employees who are satisfied with their jobs are less likely to quit them.
Furthermore, employees who are satisfied with their jobs are more likely to perform voluntary behaviors, known as organizational citizenship behavior, that contribute to organizational effectiveness. Job satisfaction also has a positive effect on employee well-being.
Organizational commitment is the collection of feelings and beliefs that people have about their organization as a whole. Affective commitment exists when employees are happy to be members of an organization and believe in what it stands for. Continuance commitment exists when employees are committed to the organization because it is too costly for them to leave. Affective commitment has more positive consequences for organizations and their members then continuance commitment. Affective commitment is more likely when organizations are socially responsible and demonstrate that they are committed to the employees. Employees with high levels of affective commitment are less likely to quit and maybe more likely to perform organizational citizenship behaviors.
Friday, September 22, 2006
Organizational behavior - Chapter 2 -- Notes
Individual differences -- the ways in which people differ from one another
personality -- the pattern of relatively enduring ways that a person feels, thinks, and behaves
nature -- biological heritage, genetic makeup
nurture -- life experiences
attraction- selection- attrition (ASA) framework -- the idea that an organization attracts and selects individuals with similar personalities and loses individuals with other types of personalities
trait -- a specific component of personality
the big five personality profile
extraversion -- the tendency to experience positive emotional states and feel good about oneself in the world around them, also called positive affectivity
neuroticism -- the tendency to experience negative emotional states in the oneself in the world around one negatively, also called negative affectivity
agreeableness -- the tendency to get along well with others
conscientiousness -- the extent to which a person is careful, scrupulous, and preserving
openness to experience -- the extent to which a person is original, has broad interests, and is willing to take risks
Locus of control
external locus of control -- describes people who believe that fate, lot, or outside forces are responsible for happens to them
internal locus of control -- describes people who believe that ability, effort, or their own actions determine what happens to them
Self-monitoring -- the extent to which people try to control the way they present themselves to others
self-esteem -- the extent to which people have pride in themselves and their capabilities
Personality types
type a - a person who has an intense desire to achieve, is extremely competitive, it has a strong sense of urgency
type b - a person who tends to be easy-going and relaxed
Need for achievement -- the desire to perform challenging tasks well and to meet ones own high standards
need for affiliation -- the desire to establish and maintain good relations with others
need for power -- the desire to exert emotional and behavioral control or influence over other
How personality is measured
ability -- the mental or physical capacity to do something
cognitive abilities
verbal ability -- ability to understand and use written and spoken language
numerical ability -- ability to solve arithmetic problems and deal with numbers
reasoning ability -- ability to come up with solutions for problems and understand the principles by which different problems can be solved
deductive ability -- ability to reach of appropriate conclusions from an array of observations or evaluate the implications of a series of facts
ability to see relationships -- the ability to see how two things are related to each other and then apply this knowledge to other relationships and situations
ability to remember -- abilities to recall things ranging from simple associations to complex groups of statements or sentences
spatial ability -- ability to determine the location or arrangement of two objects in relation to one's own position and to imagine how an object would appear if its position in space were altered
perceptual -- ability to uncover visual patterns and see relationships within and across patterns
Physical ability
motor skills -- the ability to physically manipulate objects in an environment
physical skills -- a person's fitness and strength
Emotional intelligence -- the ability to understand and manage one's own feelings and emotions and the feelings and emotions and other people
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summary
The two main types of individual differences are personality differences and ability differences. Understanding the nature, determinants, and consequences of individual differences is essential for managing organizational behavior. Because people differ so much from each other, an appreciation of the nature of individual differences is necessary to understand why people act the way they do in organizations.
Personality is the pattern of relatively enduring ways that a person feels, things, and behaves. Personality is determined both by nature (biological heritage) and nurture (situational factors). Organizational outcomes that have been shown to be predicted by personality include job satisfaction, work stress, and leadership effectiveness. Personality is not a useful predictor of organizational outcomes when there are strong situational constraints. Because personality tends to be stable over time, managers should not expect to change personality in the short run. Managers should except employees personalities as they are and develop effective ways to deal with people.
Feelings, thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors in an organization are determined by the interaction of personality and the situation.
The big five personality traits are extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience. Other personality traits particularly relevant to organizational behavior include locus of control, self-monitoring, self-esteem, type a & type b personalities, and the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power.
In addition to possessing different personalities, employees also differ in their abilities, or what they are capable of doing. The two major types of ability are cognitive ability and physical ability.
Types of cognitive ability can be arranged in a hierarchy with General intelligence at the top. Specific types of cognitive abilities are verbal ability, numerical ability, reasoning ability, deductive ability, ability to see relationships, ability to remember, spatial ability, and perceptual ability.
There are two types of physical ability, motor skills and physical skills.
Both nature and nurture contribute to determining physical ability and cognitive ability. A third, recently identified, ability is emotional intelligence.
In organizations, ability can be measured by selecting individuals who have the abilities needed to compost tasks, placing employees in jobs that capitalize on their abilities, and training employees to enhance their ability levels.
personality -- the pattern of relatively enduring ways that a person feels, thinks, and behaves
nature -- biological heritage, genetic makeup
nurture -- life experiences
attraction- selection- attrition (ASA) framework -- the idea that an organization attracts and selects individuals with similar personalities and loses individuals with other types of personalities
trait -- a specific component of personality
the big five personality profile
extraversion -- the tendency to experience positive emotional states and feel good about oneself in the world around them, also called positive affectivity
neuroticism -- the tendency to experience negative emotional states in the oneself in the world around one negatively, also called negative affectivity
agreeableness -- the tendency to get along well with others
conscientiousness -- the extent to which a person is careful, scrupulous, and preserving
openness to experience -- the extent to which a person is original, has broad interests, and is willing to take risks
Locus of control
external locus of control -- describes people who believe that fate, lot, or outside forces are responsible for happens to them
internal locus of control -- describes people who believe that ability, effort, or their own actions determine what happens to them
Self-monitoring -- the extent to which people try to control the way they present themselves to others
self-esteem -- the extent to which people have pride in themselves and their capabilities
Personality types
type a - a person who has an intense desire to achieve, is extremely competitive, it has a strong sense of urgency
type b - a person who tends to be easy-going and relaxed
Need for achievement -- the desire to perform challenging tasks well and to meet ones own high standards
need for affiliation -- the desire to establish and maintain good relations with others
need for power -- the desire to exert emotional and behavioral control or influence over other
How personality is measured
ability -- the mental or physical capacity to do something
cognitive abilities
verbal ability -- ability to understand and use written and spoken language
numerical ability -- ability to solve arithmetic problems and deal with numbers
reasoning ability -- ability to come up with solutions for problems and understand the principles by which different problems can be solved
deductive ability -- ability to reach of appropriate conclusions from an array of observations or evaluate the implications of a series of facts
ability to see relationships -- the ability to see how two things are related to each other and then apply this knowledge to other relationships and situations
ability to remember -- abilities to recall things ranging from simple associations to complex groups of statements or sentences
spatial ability -- ability to determine the location or arrangement of two objects in relation to one's own position and to imagine how an object would appear if its position in space were altered
perceptual -- ability to uncover visual patterns and see relationships within and across patterns
Physical ability
motor skills -- the ability to physically manipulate objects in an environment
physical skills -- a person's fitness and strength
Emotional intelligence -- the ability to understand and manage one's own feelings and emotions and the feelings and emotions and other people
--------------------------------------------------
summary
The two main types of individual differences are personality differences and ability differences. Understanding the nature, determinants, and consequences of individual differences is essential for managing organizational behavior. Because people differ so much from each other, an appreciation of the nature of individual differences is necessary to understand why people act the way they do in organizations.
Personality is the pattern of relatively enduring ways that a person feels, things, and behaves. Personality is determined both by nature (biological heritage) and nurture (situational factors). Organizational outcomes that have been shown to be predicted by personality include job satisfaction, work stress, and leadership effectiveness. Personality is not a useful predictor of organizational outcomes when there are strong situational constraints. Because personality tends to be stable over time, managers should not expect to change personality in the short run. Managers should except employees personalities as they are and develop effective ways to deal with people.
Feelings, thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors in an organization are determined by the interaction of personality and the situation.
The big five personality traits are extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience. Other personality traits particularly relevant to organizational behavior include locus of control, self-monitoring, self-esteem, type a & type b personalities, and the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power.
In addition to possessing different personalities, employees also differ in their abilities, or what they are capable of doing. The two major types of ability are cognitive ability and physical ability.
Types of cognitive ability can be arranged in a hierarchy with General intelligence at the top. Specific types of cognitive abilities are verbal ability, numerical ability, reasoning ability, deductive ability, ability to see relationships, ability to remember, spatial ability, and perceptual ability.
There are two types of physical ability, motor skills and physical skills.
Both nature and nurture contribute to determining physical ability and cognitive ability. A third, recently identified, ability is emotional intelligence.
In organizations, ability can be measured by selecting individuals who have the abilities needed to compost tasks, placing employees in jobs that capitalize on their abilities, and training employees to enhance their ability levels.
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