Sampling and Data Collection Summary

Sampling

The objective of most marketing research projects is to obtain information about the characteristics or parameters of a population. Such information may be obtained by taking either a census or sample. Budget and time limits, large population size, and small variance in the characteristic of interest most often favor the use of a sample. How is sampling performed?

The sampling design process includes five steps which are closely interrelated and relevant to all aspects of the marketing research project, from problem definition to the presentation of the results. These five steps are: defining the target population; determining the sample frame; selecting a sampling technique; determining the sample size; and executing the sampling process. Let us look at each of these more closely.

1. Defining the Target Population: The target population is the collection of elements or objects that possess the information sought by the researcher, and about which inferences are to be made

2. Determining the Sample Frame: A sample frame is a representation of the elements of the target population

3. Selecting a Sampling Technique: Selecting a sampling technique involves several decisions, such as whether to use a Bayesian or traditional sampling approach, sample with or without replacement, and use nonprobability or probability sampling

4. Determining the Sample Size: Determining the sample size involves several qualitative and quantitative considerations, such as the importance of the decision; the nature of the research; the number of variables involved; the costs involved in execution; the nature of the analysis, completion rates, statistical power, and confidence intervals

5. Executing the Sampling Process: Execution of the sampling process requires a detailed specification of how the sampling decisions are to be implemented with respect to the population; sampling frame; sampling unit; sampling technique; and sample size

Data Collection

Marketing researchers often use questionnaires to obtain quantitative primary data. A questionnaire is a set of questions, which are very carefully and purposely designed to capture as much of the information necessary for addressing the research question(s) and for minimizing response error.

Regardless of form (for example, questionnaire, structured interview, and so forth), researchers have two major options for collecting data: developing their own organizations, or contracting with field-work agencies. In either case, data collection involves the use of a field force. In projects demanding direct contact between field workers and respondents, all field workers should be trained in important aspects of the data collection process, including making the initial contact; asking the questions; probing; recording the answers; and terminating the interview. Supervision of field workers involves quality control and editing; sampling control; checks for cheating; central office control; and validity and reliability measures.

Data Preparation

The data must be prepared before any analysis can be performed. Data preparation is a meticulous process. Each questionnaire must be checked for completeness and accuracy. Incomplete, ambiguous, and inconsistent responses cannot be utilized in the analysis. The data must be coded; that is, a numeric or alphanumeric code is assigned to specific responses to each specific question. The coded data is then entered into a computer system and further treated for missing values. Options available for treating missing responses include substitution of a neutral value, such as the arithmetic mean; substitution of an imputed response; casewise deletion; and pairwise deletion. Data can also be statistically adjusted in an effort to enhance the quality of data analysis. Adjustment procedures include weighting, variable respecification, and scale transformations.

data preparation

Chapter 14

Data preparation begins with a preliminary check of all questionnaires for completeness and interviewing quality. Then more thorough editing takes place. Editing consists of screening questionnaires to identify illegible, incomplete, inconsistent, or ambiguous responses. Such responses may be handled by returning questionnaires to the field, assigning missing values, or discarding the unsatisfactory respondents.

The next step is coding. A new work will or alphanumeric code is assigned to represent a specific response to a specific question, along with the column position that code will occupy. It is often helpful to prepare a codebook containing decoding instructions and the necessary information about the variables in the data set. The coded data are transcribed into disks or magnetic tapes were entered into computers via key punching. Mark sense forms, optical scanning, or computerized sensory analysis may also be used.

Cleaning the data requires consistency checks and treatment of missing responses. Options are available for treating missing responses include substitution of a neutral value such as the mean, substitution of an imputed response, case lies deletion, and pairwise deletion. Statistical adjustments such as weighting, variable re-specification, and scale transformations often and enhance the quality of data analysis. The selection of a data analysis strategy should be based on the earlier steps of the marketing research process, known characteristics of the data, properties of statistical techniques, and a background in philosophy of the researcher. Statistical techniques may be classified as univariate or multivariate.

Before analyzing the data in international marketing research, the researcher should ensure that the units of measurement are comparable across countries or cultural units.
The data analysis could be conducted at three levels:

• individual
• within country or cultural unit (intercultural analysis)
• across countries or cultural units: pancultural or cross cultural analysis

Several ethical issues are related to data processing, particularly the discarding of unsatisfactory responses, violation of the assumptions underlying the data analysis techniques, and evaluation in interpretation of the results. The Internet and computers play a significant role in data preparation and analysis.

Editing -- a review of the questionnaires with the objective of increasing accuracy and precision
coding -- the assignment of a code to represent a specific response to a specific question along with the data record and column position that code will occupy
fixed-field codes -- a code in which the number of records for each respondent are the same, and the same data appear in the same columns for all respondents
codebook -- a book containing coding instructions and the necessary information about variables in the data set
data cleaning -- thorough and extensive checks for consistency and treatment of missing responses
consistency checks -- a part of the data cleaning process that identifies data that is out of range, logically inconsistent, or have extreme values. Data with values not defined by the coding scheme is inadmissible
missing responses -- values of a variable that are on men, as these respondents did not provide unambiguous answers to the question
casewise deletion -- a method for handling missing responses in which cases or respondents with any missing responses are discarded from the analysis
pairwise deletion -- a method of handling missing values in which all cases, or respondents, with any missing values are not automatically discarded, rather, for each calculation only the cases or respondents with complete responses are considered
weighting -- a statistical adjustment to the data in which each case or respondents in the database is assigned a weight to reflect its importance relative to other cases or respondents
variable respecification -- the transformation of data to create new variables or the modification of existing variables set that they are more consistent with the objectives of the study
dummy variables -- a respecification procedure using variables that take aren't only two values, usually zero or one
scale transformation -- and manipulation of scale values to ensure comparability with other scales or otherwise make the data suitable for analysis
standardization -- the process of correcting data to reduce them to the same scale by subtracting the sample mean and dividing by the standard deviation
univariate techniques -- statistical techniques appropriate for analyzing data when there is a single measurement of each element in the sample or, if there are several measurements on each element, each variable is analyzed in isolation
multivariate techniques -- statistical techniques suitable for analyzing data when there are two or more measurements on each element in the variables are analyzed simultaneously. Multivariate techniques are concerned with the simultaneous relationships among two or more phenomena
metric data -- data that is interval or ratio in nature
nonmetric data -- data derived from a nominal or ordinal scale
Independent -- the samples are independent if they are drawn randomly from different populations
paired -- the samples are paired when the data for the two samples relate to the same group of respondents
dependence techniques -- multivariate techniques appropriate when one or more of the variables can be identified as dependent variables and the remaining as independent variables
interdependence techniques -- multivariate statistical techniques that attempt to group data based on underlying similarity, and does allow for interpretation of the data structures. No distinction is made as to which variables are dependent and which are independent
intracultural analysis -- within country analysis of international data
pancultural analysis -- across countries analysis in which the data for all respondents from all the countries are pooled and analyzed
cross-cultural analysis -- a type of a cross countries analysis in which the data could be aggregated for each country and these aggregate statistics analyzed

data collection: fieldwork

data collection, preparation, analysis, and reporting -- Chapter 13 -- fieldwork

Researchers have two major options for collecting data: developing their own organizations or contracting with fieldwork agencies. In either case, data collection and involves the use of a field force. Field workers should be healthy, outgoing, creative, pleasant, educated, and experienced. They should be trained in important aspects of fieldwork, including making the initial contact, asking the questions, probing, recording the answers, and terminating the interview.

Supervision of field workers and involves quality control and editing, sampling control, control of cheating, and central office control. Validation of fieldwork can be accomplished by calling 10 to 25% of those who have been identified as interviewees and inquiring whether the interviews took place. Field workers should be evaluated on the basis of cost and time, response rates, quality of interviewing, and quality of data collection.

The selection, training, supervision, and evaluation of field workers is even more critical in international marketing research, as local fieldwork agencies are not available in many countries. Ethical issues include making the respondents feel comfortable in the data collection process so that their experience is positive. Every effort must be undertaken to ensure that the data is of high quality. The Internet and computers can greatly facilitate and improve the quality of fieldwork.

Probing -- a motivational technique used when asking survey questions to induce the respondents to enlarge on, clarify, or explain their answers and to help the respondents to focus on the specific content of the interview
sampling control -- an aspect of supervision that ensures that the interviewers strictly follow the sampling plan rather than select sampling units based on convenience or accessibility

sampling: final and initial sample size determination

Chapter 12

The statistical approaches to determining sample size are based on confidence intervals. These approaches may involve the estimation of the mean or proportion. When estimating the mean, determination of sample size using a confidence interval approach requires a specification of precision level, confidence level, and population standard deviation. In the case of proportion, the precision level, confidence level, and an estimate of the population proportion must be specified. The sample size determined statistically represents the final or net sample size that must be achieved. In order to achieve this final sample size, a much greater number of potential respondents have to be contacted to account for reduction in response due to incidence rates and completion rates.

Non-response error arises when some of the potential respondents included in the sample did not respond. The primary causes of low response rates are refusals and not-at-homes. Refusal rates may be reduced by prior notification, motivating the respondents, incentives, proper questionnaire design and administration, and follow-up. The percentage of not-at-homes can be substantially reduced by callbacks. Adjustments for non-response can be made by subsampling non-respondents, replacement, substitution, subjective estimates, trend analysis, weighting, and imputation.

The statistical estimation of sample size is even more complicated in international marketing research, as the population variance may differ from one country to the next. A preliminary estimation of population variance for the purpose of determining the sample size also has ethical ramifications. The Internet and computers can assist in determining the sample size and adjusting it to a count for expected incidence and completion rates.

Sampling distribution -- the distribution of the values of a sample statistic computed for each possible sample that could be drawn from the target population under a specified sampling plan
statistical inference -- the process of generalizing the sample results to the population results
normal distribution -- a basis for classical statistical inference that is bell shaped and symmetrical and appearance. Its measures of central tendency are all identical
standard error -- the standard deviation of the sampling distribution of the mean or proportion
z values -- the number of standard errors in point is away from the mean
incidence rate -- the rate of occurrence of persons eligible to participate in a study expressed as a percentage
completion rate -- the percentage of qualified respondents to complete the interview. It enables researchers to take into account anticipated refusals by people who qualify
substitution -- a procedure that substitutes for nonrespondents other elements from the sampling frame that are expected to respond
trend analysis -- a method of adjusting for nonrespondents in which the researcher tries to discern a trend between early and late respondents. This trend is projected to nonrespondents to estimate their characteristic of interest
weighting -- statistical procedure that attempts to account for non-response by assigning differential weight to the data depending on the response rate
imputation -- a method to adjust for non-response by assigning to characteristic of interest to the nonrespondents based on the similarity of the variables available for both nonrespondents and respondents

sampling: design and procedures

Chapter 11

Information about the characteristics of a population may be obtained by conducting either a sample or a census. Budget and time limits, large population size, and small variants and a characteristic of interest favor the use of a sample. Sampling is also preferred when the cost of sampling error is low, the cost of non-sampling error is high, the nature of measurement is destructive, and attention must be focused on the individual cases. The opposite set of conditions favor the use of a census.

Sampling begins by defining the target population in terms of:

• elements
• sampling units
• extent
• time

Then a sampling frame should be determined. A sampling frame is a representation of the elements of the target population. It consists of a list of directions for identifying the target population. At this stage, it is important to recognize any sampling frame errors that may exist. The next steps involve selecting a sampling technique and determining the sample size. In addition to quantitative analysis, several qualitative considerations should be taken into account in determining the sample size. Finally, execution of the sampling process requires detailed specifications for each step in the sampling process.

Sampling techniques may be classified as non-probability and probability techniques. Nonprobability sampling techniques rely on the researcher's judgment. Consequently, they do not permit an objective evaluation of the precision of the sample results, and the estimates obtained are not statistically projectable to the population.

The commonly used the non-probability sampling techniques include:

• convenience sampling
• judgmental sampling
• quota sampling
• snowball sampling

In probability sampling techniques, sampling units are selected by chance. Each sampling unit has any nonzero chance of being selected in the researcher can pre-specify every potential sample of a given size that could be drawn from the population, as well as the probability of selecting each sample. It is also possible to determine the precision of the sample estimates and inferences and make projections to the target population.

Probability sampling techniques include:

• simple random sampling
• systematic sampling
• stratified sampling
• cluster sampling
• sequential sampling
• double sampling

The choice between probability and non-probability sampling should be based on the nature of the research, the degree of error tolerance, the relative magnitude of sampling and non-sampling errors, the variability in the population, and statistical and operational considerations.

When conducting international marketing research, it is desirable to achieve comparability and sample composition and representativeness even though this may require the use of different sampling techniques in different countries. It is unethical and misleading to treat nonprobability samples as probability samples and project the results to the target population. The Internet and computers can be used to make the sampling design process more effective and efficient.

Population -- the aggregate of all the elements, sharing some common set of characteristics, that comprises the universe for the purpose of the marketing research problem
Census -- a complete enumeration of the elements of the population or study objects
sample -- a subgroup of the elements of the population selected for participation in the study
target population -- the collection of elements or objects that possesses the information sought by the researcher and about which inferences are to be made
element -- objects that possess the information sought by the researcher and about which inferences are to be made
sampling unit -- the basic unit containing the elements of the population to be sampled
sampling frame -- a representation of the elements of the target population. It consists of a list or set of directions for identifying the target population
Bayesian approach -- a selection method with the elements are selected sequentially. This approach explicitly incorporates prior information about population parameters as well as costs and probabilities associated with making wrong decisions
sampling with replacement -- a sampling technique in which an element can be included in the sample more than once
sampling without replacement -- a sampling technique in which an element cannot be included in the sample more than once
sample size -- the number of elements to be included in the study
nonprobability sampling -- sampling techniques that do not use chance selection procedures. Rather, they rely on a personal judgment of the researcher
probability sampling -- a sampling procedure in which each element of the population has a fixed probabilistic chance of being selected for the sample
convenience sampling -- a nonprobability sampling technique that attempts to obtain a sample of convenient elements. The selection of sampling units is left primarily to the interviewer
judgmental sampling -- a form of convenience sampling in which the population elements are purposively based on the judgment of the researcher
quota sampling -- and nonprobability sampling technique that is a two-stage restricted judgmental sampling. The first stage consists of developing control categories or quotas of population elements. In the second stage, sample elements are selected based on convenience or judgment
Snowball sampling -- and nonprobability sampling technique in which an initial group of respondents is selected randomly. Subsequent respondents are selected based on the referrals or information provided by the initial respondents. This process may be carried out in ways by obtaining referrals from referrals
simple random sampling (SRS) -- a probability sampling technique in which each element in the population has a known and equal probability of selection. Every element is selected independently of every other element and the sample is drawn by a random procedure from a sampling frame
systematic sampling -- a probability sampling technique in which the sample is chosen by selecting a random starting point and then picking every ith element in succession from the sampling frame
stratified sampling -- a probability sampling technique that uses a two step process to partition the population into subpopulations, or strata. Elements are selected from each stratum by a random procedure
cluster sampling -- first, the target population is divided into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive subpopulations called clusters. Then, a random sample of clusters is selected based on a probability sampling technique such as simple random sampling. For each selected cluster, either all the elements are included in the sample or a sample of elements is drawn probabilistically
area sampling -- a common form of cluster sampling in which the clusters consist of geographic areas such as countries, housing tracts, block, or other area descriptions
probability proportionate to size sampling -- a selection method with the clusters are selected with probability proportional to size and a probability of selecting a sampling unit and a selected cluster varies inversely with the size of the cluster
sequential sampling -- a probability sampling technique in which the population elements are sampled sequentially, data collection and analysis are done at each stage, and a decision is made as to whether additional population elements should be sampled
double sampling -- a sampling technique in which certain population elements are sampled twice

questionnaire and form design

Chapter 10

To collect quantitative primary data, the researcher must design a questionnaire or an observation form. A questionnaire has three objectives.

1. It must translate the information needed into a set of specific questions the respondents can and will answer.
2. It must motivate respondents to complete the interview.
3. It must minimize response error.

designing a questionnaire is an art rather than a science. The process begins by specifying:

1. the information needed
2. the type of interview method
3. decide on the content of individual questions
4. questions must overcome the respondents inability and unwillingness to answer
5. decide on question structure
6. determine the wording of each question
7. ordering of the questions
8. determine form and layout of the questions
9. determined reproduction methods
10. pre-test
    

Respondents may be unable to answer if they are not informed, cannot remember, or cannot articulate the response. The unwillingness of the respondents to answer must also be overcome. Respondents may be unwilling to answer if the question requires too much effort, is asked in a situation or context deemed inappropriate, does not serve a legitimate purpose, or solicits sensitive information. Then comes the decision regarding the question structure. Questions can be unstructured (open ended) or structured to a varying degree. Structured questions include multiple-choice, dichotomous questions, and scales.

Determining the wording of each question involves defining the issue, using ordinary words, using unambiguous words, and using dual statements. The researcher should avoid leading questions, implicit alternatives, implicit assumptions, and generalizations and estimates. Once the questions have been worded, the order in which they will appear in the questionnaire must be decided. Special consideration should be given to opening questions, type of information, difficult questions, and the effect on subsequent questions. The questions should be arranged in a logical order.

The stage is now set for determining the form and layout of the questions. Several factors are important in reproducing the questionnaire.
These include:

• appearance
• use of booklets
• fitting an entire question on a page
• response category format
• avoiding overcrowding
• placement of directions
• color coding
• easy to read format
• cost

Last but not least is pretesting. Important issues are:

• extent of pretesting
• nature of respondents
• type of interviewing method
• type of interviewers
• sample size
• protocol analysis and debriefing
• editing and analysis

The design of observational forms requires explicit decisions about what is to be observed and how that behavior is to be recorded. It is useful to specify the who, what, when, where, why, and way of the behavior to be observed.

The questionnaire should be adapted to the specific cultural environment and should not be biased in terms of any one culture. Also, the questionnaire may have to be suitable for ministration by more than one method as different interviewing methods may be used in different countries. Several ethical issues related to the researcher respondent relationship and the researcher client relationship may have to be addressed. The Internet and computers can greatly assist the researcher in designing sound questionnaires and observational forms.

Questionnaire -- a structured technique for data collection that consists of a series of questions, written or verbal, that respondent answers
double-barreled question -- a single question that attempts to cover two issues. Such questions can be confusing to respondents and result in ambiguous responses
filter questions -- an initial question in a questionnaire that screens potential respondents to ensure they meet the requirements of the sample
telescoping -- a psychological phenomenon that takes place when an individual telescopes or compress time by remembering an event as occurring more recently than actually occurred
unstructured questions -- open-ended questions that respondent answer in their own words
structured questions -- questions that pre-specify the set of response alternatives and the response format. A structured question could be multiple choice, dichotomous, or a scale
order or position bias -- a respondents tendency to check an alternative merely because it occupies a certain position or is listed in a certain order
dichotomous question -- a structured question was only two response alternatives, such as yes and no
leading question -- a question that gives a respondent a clue as to what answer is desired or leave the responded to answer in a certain way
implicit alternative -- an alternative that is not explicitly expressed
classification information -- socioeconomic and demographic characteristics used to classify respondents
identification information -- a type of information obtained in a questionnaire that includes name, address, and phone number
funnel approach -- a strategy for ordering questions in a questionnaire in which the sequence starts with the general questions that are followed by progressively specific questions, in order to prevent specific questions from biasing general questions
branching questions -- question used to guide an interviewer through a survey of directing the interviewer to different spots on the questionnaire depending on the answer given
pre-coding -- and questionnaire design, assigning a code to every conceivable response before data collection
pretesting -- the testing of the questionnaire on a small sample of respondents for the purpose of improving the questionnaire by identifying and eliminating potential problems

measurement and scaling -- noncomparative scaling techniques

chapter 9

In noncomparative scaling, each object is scaled independently of the other objects in the stimulus set. the resulting data is generally assumed to be interval or ratio scale. noncomparative rating scales can be either continuous or itemized. The itemized rating scales are further classified as Likert, semantic differential, or Stapel scales. When using noncomparative itemized rating scales, the researcher must decide on the number of scale categories, balanced verses unbalanced scales, odd or even number of categories, forced versus non-forced scales, nature and degree of verbal description, and a physical form or configuration.

Multi-item scales consist of a number of rating scale items. The scale should be evaluated in terms of reliability and validity. Reliability refers to the extent to which a scale produces consistent results if repeated measurements are made. Approaches to assessing reliability include test -- retest, alternative forms, and internal consistency. Validity, or accuracy of measurement, may be assessed by evaluating content validity, criterion validity, and construct validity.

The choice of particular scaling techniques in a given situation should be based on theoretical and practical considerations. As a general rule, the scaling technique used should be the one that will yield the highest level of information feasible. Also, multiple measures should be obtained.

An international marketing research, special attention should be debated to determining equivalent verbal descriptors in different languages and cultures. The researcher has a responsibility to both the client and the respondents to insure the applicability and usefulness of the scales. The Internet and computers are useful for developing and testing continuous and itemized rating scales, particularly multi-item scales.

Non-comparative scale -- 1 of two types of scaling techniques in which each stimulus object is scaled independently of the other objects in the stimulus set
continuous rating scale -- also referred to as graphic rating scale, this measurement scale has the respondents rate the objects by placing a market the appropriate position on a line that runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to the other
itemized rating scale -- a measurement scale having numbers and/or brief descriptions associated with each category. The categories are ordered in terms of scale position
Likert scale -- a measurement scale of five response categories ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree, which requires the respondents to indicate a degree of agreement or disagreement with each of a series of statements related to the stimulus objects
semantic differential -- a seven-point rating scale with endpoint associated with bipolar labels that have semantic meaning
Stapel scale -- a scale for measuring attitudes that consists of a single objective in the middle of an even numbered range of values, from negative five to positive five, without a neutral point (zero)
balanced scale -- a scale with an equal number of favorable and unfavorable categories
forced rating scales -- a reading scale that forces the respondents to express an opinion because "no opinion" or "no knowledge" option is not provided
measurement error -- the variation in the information sought by the researcher and the information generated by the measurement process employed
true score model -- a mathematical model that provides a framework for understanding the accuracy of measurement
systematic error -- systematic error affects the measurement in a constant way and represents stable factors that affect the observed score in some way each time the measurement is made
random error -- measurement error that arises from random changes or differences and respondents were measurement situations
reliability -- the extent to which a scale produces constant results if repeated measurements are made on the characteristic
test-retest reliability -- an approach for assessing reliability in which respondents are administered identical sets of scale items at two different times under a nearly equivalent conditions as possible
alternative forms reliability -- an approach for assessing reliability that requires to equivalent forms of the scale to be constructed and then the same respondents are measured at two different times
internal consistency reliability -- an approach for assessing the internal consistency of the set of items when several items are summated in order to form a total score for the scale
split- half reliability -- a form of internal consistency reliability and which the items constituting the scale are divided into two halves and the resulting half scores are correlated
coefficient alpha -- it's a measure of internal consistency reliability that is the average of all possible split half coefficients resulting from different splitting of the scale items
validity -- the extent to which differences and observe scale scores reflect true differences among objects on the characteristic being measured, rather than systematic or random errors
content validity -- a type of validity, sometimes called face validity, that consists of a subjective but systematic evaluation of the representativeness of the content of a scale for the measuring task at hand
criterion validity -- a type of validity that examines whether the measurement scale performs as expected in relation to other variables selected as meaningful criteria
construct validity -- a type of validity that addresses the question of what construct or characteristic the scale is measuring. An attempt is made to answer theoretical questions of why a scale works and what deductions can be made concerning the theory underlying the scale
convergent validity -- a measure of construct validity that measures the extent to which the scale correlates positively with other measures are the same construct
discriminant validity -- a type of construct validity that accesses the extent to which a measure does not correlate with other constructs from which it is supposed to differ
nomological validity -- a type of validity that assesses the relationship between theoretical constructs. It seeks to confirm significant correlations between constructs as predicted by theory
generalizability -- the degree to which a study based on a sample of applies to a universe of generalization

measurement and scaling

Chapter 8

Measurement is the assignment of numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects according to set rules. Scaling and involves the generation of a continuum upon which measured objects are located.

The four primary skills of measurement are:

1. nominal
2. ordinal
3. interval
4. ratio

Of these, the nominal scale is the most basic and that the numbers are used only for identifying or classifying objects. In the ordinal scale, the next higher level scale, the numbers indicate the relative position of the objects but not the magnitude of difference between them. The interval scale permits a comparison of the differences between the objects. However, as it has an arbitrary zero point, it is not meaningful to calculate ratios of scale values on an interval scale. The highest level of measurement is represented by the ratio scale in which the zero point is fixed. The researcher can compute ratios of scale values using the scale. The ratio scale it incorporates all the properties of the lower level scales.

Scaling techniques can be classified as comparative or non-comparative. Comparative scaling and involves a direct comparison of stimulus objects.

Comparative scales include:

• paired comparisons
• rank order
• constant sum
• Q-sort properties

Respondents in many developed countries, due to higher education and consumer sophistication levels, are quite used to providing responses on interval and ratio scales. However, in developing countries, preferences can be best measured by using ordinal scales. Ethical considerations require that the appropriate type of skills be used in order to get the data needed to answer the research questions and test the hypotheses. The Internet, as well as several specialized computer programs, are unavailable to implement the different types of scales.

Measurement -- the assignment of numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects according to certain pre-specified rules
scaling -- the generation of a continuum upon which measured objects are located
nominal scale -- a scale whose numbers serve only as labels or tags for identifying and classifying objects with a strict one-to-one correspondence between the numbers in the objects
ordinal scale -- a ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to objects to indicate the relative extent to which some characteristic is possessed. Thus it is possible to determine whether an object has more or less of a characteristic and some other object
interval scale -- a scale in which the numbers are used to great objects such numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal distances in the characteristic being measured
ratio scale -- the highest scale. It allows the researcher to identify or classify objects, rank order the objects, and compare intervals or differences. It is also meaningful to compute ratios of scale values
comparative scales -- 1 or two types of scaling techniques in which there is direct comparison of stimulus objects with one another
non-comparative scales -- 1 of two types of scaling techniques in which each stimulus object is scaled independently of the other objects in the stimulus that
paired comparisons scaling -- a comparative scaling technique in which he respond it is presented with two objects at a time and asked to select one object in the pair according to some criterion. the data obtained are ordinal in nature
transitivity of preference -- an assumption made in order to convert paired comparison data to rank order data
rank order scaling -- a comparative scaling technique in which respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously and asked to order or rank them according to some criterion
constant sum scaling -- a comparative scaling technique in which respondents are required to allocate a constant sum of the units such as points, dollars, stickers, or chips among a set of stimulus objects with respect to some criterion
Q-sort scaling -- a comparative scaling technique that uses a rank order procedure to sort objects based on similarity with respect to some criterion

experimentation

Chapter 7

The scientific notion of causality implies that we can never prove that X causes Y. At best, we can only infer that X is one of the causes of Y in that it makes the occurrence of Y probable.

Three conditions must be satisfied before casual inferences can be made:

1. concomitant variation, which implies that X and Y must vary together in a hypothesized way
2. timed order of occurrence of variables, which implies that X must precede Y
3. a lemon nation of other possible casual factors, which implies that competing explanations must be ruled out

Experiments provide the most convincing evidence of all three conditions. An experiment is formed when one or more independent variables are manipulated or controlled by the researcher, and their affect on one or more dependent variables is measured.

In designing an experiment, it is important to consider internal and external validity. Internal validity refers to whether the manipulation of the independent variables actually cause the effects of the dependent variables. External validity refers to the realizability of experimental results.

For the experiment to be valid, the researcher must control the threats imposed by extraneous variables, such as:

• history
• maturation
• testing (main and interactive testing effects)
• instrumentation
• statistical regression
• selection bias
• mortality

There are four ways of controlling extraneous variables:

1. randomization
2. matching
3. statistical control
4. design control

Experimental designs may be classified as:

• pre-experimental
• true experimental
• quasi-experimental
• statistical

An experiment may be conducted in a laboratory environment or under actual market conditions in real-life settings. Only casual designs income passing experimentation are appropriate for inferring cause and effect relationships.

Although experiments have limitations in terms of time, cost, and administration, they are becoming increasingly popular in marketing. Test marketing is an important application of experimental design.

The internal and external validity of field experiments conducted overseas is generally lower in the United States. The level of development in many countries is lower, and the researcher lacks control over many of the marketing variables. The ethical issues involved in conducting casual research include describing the purpose of the experiment. Debriefing can be used to address some of these issues. The Internet and computers are very useful in the design and implementation of experiments.

Causality -- when the occurrence of X increases the probability of the occurrence of Y
concomitant variation -- a condition for inferring causality that requires the extent to which a cause,X, and an effect,Y, occurred together or buried together is predicted by the up office this under consideration
independent variables -- variables that are manipulated by the researcher and whose effects are measured and compared
test units -- individuals, organizations, or other entities whose response to independent variables or treatments is being studied
dependent variables -- variables that measure the effect of the independent variables on the test units
extraneous variables -- variables, other than the independent variables, that influence the response of the test units
experiment -- the process of manipulating one or more independent variables and measuring their effect on one or more dependent variables, while controlling for the extraneous variables
experimental design -- a set of experimental procedures specifying:

1. the test units and sampling procedures
2. independent variables
3. dependent variables
4. how to control the extraneous variables

Internal validity -- a measure of accuracy of an experiment. It measures whether the manipulation of the independent variables, or treatments, actually cause the effects on the dependent variables
external validity -- a determination of whether the cause and effect relationships found in the experiment can be generalized
history (H) -- specific events that are external to the experiment but occur at the same time as the experiment
maturation (MA) -- an extraneous variable attributable to changes in the test units themselves that occur with the passage of time
Main testing effect (MT) -- an effect of testing occurring when a prior observation affects a later observation
interactive testing effect (IT) -- an effect in which a prior measurement affects the testing its response to the independent variable
instrumentation (I) -- an extraneous variable involving changes in the measurable instrument or in the observers were scores themselves
statistical regression (SR) -- an extraneous variable that occurs when testing its with extreme scores move closer to the average score during the course of the experiment
selection bias (SB) -- an extraneous variable attributable to the improper assignment of test units to treatment conditions
mortality (MO) -- an extraneous variable attributable to the loss of test units while the experiment is in progress
confounding variables -- synonymous with extraneous variables, used to illustrate that extraneous variables can confound the results by influencing the dependent variable
randomization -- 1 method of controlling extraneous variables that involves randomly assigning test units to experimental groups by using random numbers. Treatment conditions are also randomly assigned to experimental groups
matching -- 1 method of controlling extraneous variables that involves matching test units on a set of key background variables before assigning them to the treatment conditions
statistical control -- 1 method of controlling extraneous variables by measuring the extraneous variables and adjusting for their effects through statistical methods
design control -- 1 method of controlling extraneous variables that involves using specific experimental designs
pre-experimental designs -- designs that do not control for extraneous factors by randomization
true experimental designs -- experimental designs distinguished by the fact that the researcher can randomly assigned test units to experimental groups and also randomly assigned treatments to experimental groups
quasi-experimental designs -- designs that apply part of the procedures of true experimentation but lack full experimental control
statistical design -- designs that allow for the statistical control and analysis of external variables
one-shot case study -- a pre-experimental design in which a single group of test units is exposed to treatment X, and then a single measurement on the dependent variable is taken
one group pre-test - posttest design -- a pre-experimental design in which a group of test units is measured twice
static group -- a pre-experimental design in which there are two groups: the experimental group (EG), which is exposed to the treatment, and the control group (CG). Measurements on both groups are made only after the treatment, and test units are not assigned at random
pre-test - posttest control group design -- a true experimental design in which the experimental group is exposed to the treatment at the control group is not. Pre-test and posttest measurements are taken on both groups
posttest only control group design -- a true experimental design in which the experimental group is exposed to the treatment but the control group is not and no pretest measure is taken
Solomon four-group design -- a true experimental design that explicitly controls for interactive testing effects, in addition to controlling for all the other extraneous variables
time series design -- a quasi-experimental design that involves periodic measurements on the dependent variable for a group of test units. Then, the treatment is administered by the researcher or occurs naturally. After the treatment, periodic measurements are continued in order to determine the treatment effect
multiple time series design -- a time series design that includes another group of test units to serve as a control group
randomized block design -- a statistical design in which to test units are blocked on the basis of on external variable to ensure that the various experimental and control groups are matched closely on that variable
Latin square design -- a statistical design allows for the statistical control of two non-interacting external variables in addition to the manipulation of the independent variable
factorial design -- a statistical experimental design that is used to measure the effects of two or more independent variables at various levels and to allow for interactions between variables
laboratory environment -- an artificial setting for experimentation in which the researcher conducts the desired conditions
field environment -- an experimental location set in the actual market conditions
demand artifacts -- the respondents attempt to guess the purpose of the experiment and respond accordingly
test marketing -- an application of a controlled experiment done in limited, but carefully selected, test markets. It involves a replication of the planned national marketing program for a product in the test markets
test markets -- a carefully selected part of the marketplace that is particularly suitable for testmarketing
standard test market -- a test market in which the product is sold through regular distribution channels. For example, no special considerations are given to product simply because they are being testmarketed
controlled test market -- a testmarketing program conducted by an outside research company in field experimentation. The research company guarantees distribution of the product and retail outlet that represent a predetermined percentage of the market
simulated test market -- a quasi-test market in which respondents are preselected, then interviewed and observed on their purchases and attitudes toward the product
debriefing -- after the experiment, informing test subjects with the experiment was about and how they experimental manipulations were performed

survey and observation

Chapter 6

The two basic means of obtaining primary quantitative data and descriptive research our survey and observation. Survey involves a direct questioning of respondents, where is observation entails recording responded behavior.

Surveys involve the administration of a questionnaire and may be classified, based on the method or mood of administration, as:

• traditional telephone interviews
• CATI
• in-home personal interviews
• Mall intercept interviews
• CAPI
• Mail surveys
• Mail panels
• e-mail surveys
• Internet surveys

Of these methods, traditional phone interviews and CATI are the most popular. However, each method has some general advantages and disadvantages.

The various methods may be compared in terms of:

• flexibility of data collection
• diversity of questions
• use of physical stimuli
• sample control
• control of the data collection environment
• control of field force
• quantity of data
• social desirability
• obtaining sensitive information
• potential for interviewer bias
• response rate
• perceived anonymity
• speed
• cost

Although these data collection methods are usually thought of as distinct and competitive, they should not be considered mutually exclusive. It is possible to employ them productively in combination.

Observational methods may be classified as structured or unstructured, disguised or on disguised, and natural or contrived.

The major methods are:

• personal observation
• mechanical observation
• audit
• content analysis
• trace analysis

As compared to surveys, the relative advantages of observational methods are:

• they permit measurement of actual behavior
• there is no reporting bias
• there is less potential for interviewer bias

The relative disadvantages of observation are:

• very little can be inferred about motives, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences
• there is potential for observer bias
• most methods are time-consuming and expensive
• it is difficult to observe some forms of behavior
• potential for being unethical

Observation is rarely used as the sole method of obtaining primary data, but it can be usefully employed in conjunction with survey methods.

In collecting data from different countries, it is desirable to use survey methods with equivalent levels of reliability, rather than in same method. Respondents anonymity should be protected and their names should not be turned over to the clients. People should not be observed without consent for research in situations were they would not expect to be observed life in public. Internet and computers are used extensively and survey research. They also facilitate observation methods, particularly content analysis, audits, and trace analysis.

survey method -- a structured question near given to respondents and designed to elicit specific information
structured data collection -- use of a formal questioning or that presents questions in a prearranged order
fixed alternative questions -- questions that require respondents to choose from a set of predetermined answers
CAPI -- computer assisted personal interviewing
Mail panel -- a large and nationally representative sample of households who have agreed to periodically participate in mail questionnaires and product tests
sample control -- the ability of the survey measured to reach the units specified in the sample effectively and efficiently
sampling frame -- a representation of the elements of the target population. It consists of a list or set of directions for identifying the target population
random digit dialing (RDD) -- a technique used to overcome the bias of on published in a recent telephone numbers by selecting all telephone number digits at random
random digit directory designs -- a research design for telephone surveys in which a sample of numbers is drawn from the telephone directory and modified to allow on published numbers a chance of being included in the sample
Field force -- the field force is made up of both the actual interviewers and the supervisors involved in data collection
response rate -- the percentage of the total attempted interviews that are completed
non-response bias -- the actual respondents differ from those to refuse to participate
critical request -- the target behavior that is being researched
perceived anonymity -- the respondents perception that their identities will not be discerned by the interviewer or the researcher
social desirability -- the tendency of the respondents to give answers that may not be accurate but that may be desirable from a social standpoint
observation -- the recording of behavioral patterns of people, objects, and events in a systematic manner to obtain information about the phenomenon of interest
structured observation -- observation techniques or the researcher clearly defines the behaviors to be observed and the methods by which they will be measured
unstructured observation -- observation that involves a researcher monitoring all aspects of the phenomenon without specifying the details in advance
natural observation -- observing behavior as it takes place in the environment
contrived observation -- the behavior is observed in an artificial environment
personal observation -- an observational research strategy in which human observers record the phenomenon being observed as it occurs
mechanical observation -- an observational research strategy in which mechanical devices, rather than human observers, record the phenomenon being observed
psychologicalvanometer -- an instrument that measures a respondents galvanic skin response
galvanic skin response (GSR) -- changes in the electrical resistance of the skin that relate to a respondents affected state
voice pitch analysis -- measurement of emotional reactions through changes in the respondents voice
response latency -- the amount of time it takes to respond
pantry audit -- a type of audit where the researcher inventories the brands, quantities, and package sizes of products in the consumer's home
content analysis -- the objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of any communication
trace analysis -- an approach in which data collection is based on physical traces, or evidence, of past behavior

qualitative research

Chapter 5

qualitative and quantitative research should be viewed as complementary. Qualitative research methods may be direct or indirect. Indirect methods, respondents are able to discern the true purpose of the research, whereas indirect methods disguise the purpose of the research. The major direct methods are focus groups and debt interviews. Focus groups are conducted in a group setting, whereas depth interviews are done one-on-one. Focus group interviews are the most widely used quantitative research technique.

The indirect techniques are called projective techniques as they ain't to project the respondents motivations, beliefs, attitudes, and feelings onto ambiguous situations. The projective techniques may be classified as association (word association), completion (sentence completion, paragraph completion, story completion), construction (picture response, cartoon tests), and expressive (role-playing, third person) techniques. Projective techniques are particularly useful when respondents are unwilling or unable to provide the required information by direct methods.

Qualitative research can reveal the salient differences between the domestic and foreign markets. Whether focus groups or depth interview should be conducted and how the findings should be interpreted depends heavily on the cultural differences. When conducting qualitative research, the researcher and the client must respect the respondents. This should include protecting the anonymity of respondents, honoring all statements in promises used to ensure participation, and conducting research and a way not to embarrass or harm the respondents. Focus groups, depth interviews, and project of techniques can also be conducted via the Internet. Microcomputers and mainframes can be used to select and screen respondents, and encoding and analyzing qualitative data.

qualitative research -- an unstructured, exploratory research methodology based on small samples that provides insights and understanding of the problems setting
quantitative research -- a research methodology that seeks to quantify the data and, typically, apply some form of statistical analysis
direct approach -- 1 type of qualitative research in which the purposes of the project are disclosed to the respondent are obvious, given the nature of the interview
indirect approach -- a type of qualitative research in which the purpose of the project is disguised from the respondents
focus group -- an interview conducted by a trained moderator among a small group of respondents in on structured and natural manner
depth interview -- and on structured, direct, personal interview in which a single respondent is probed by a highly skilled interviewer to uncover underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, and feelings on a topic
laddering -- a technique for conducting depth interviews in which a line of questioning proceeds from product characteristics to user characteristics
hidden issue questioning -- a type of depth interview that attempts to locate personal sore spots related to deeply felt personal concerns
symbolic analysis -- a technique for conducting depth interviews in which the symbolic meaning of objects is analyzed by comparing them with their opposites
projective technique -- an on structured and indirect form of questioning that encourages the respondents to project their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings regarding the issues of concern
Association techniques -- a type of projective technique in which the respondent is presented with a stimulus and asked to respond with the first thing that comes to mind
Word Association -- a projective technique in which respondents are presented with a list of words, one at time. After each word, they are asked to give the first word that comes to mind
completion techniques -- a projective technique that requires respond to complete an incomplete stimulus situation
sentence completion -- a projective technique in which respondents are presented with a number of incomplete sentences and asked to complete them
story completion -- a productive technique in which the respondents are provided with part of the story and required to give the conclusion in their own words
construction technique -- a projected technique in which the respondent is required to construct a response in the form of a story, dialogue, or description
picture response technique -- a projected technique in which the respondent shown a picture and asked to tell a story describing it
cartoon tests -- cartoon characters are shown in a specific situation related to the problem. The respondents are asked to indicate the dialogue that one cartoon character might make in response to the comments of another character
expressive techniques -- projected techniques in which the respondent is presented with a verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the feelings and attitudes of the other people in the situation
role-playing -- respondents are asked to assume the behavior of someone else
third person technique -- a projected technique in which the respondent is presented with a verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the beliefs and attitudes of a third person to the situation

research design formulation - secondary data

chapter 4

In contrast to primary data, which originate with a researcher for the specific purpose of the problem hand, secondary data is data originally collected for other purposes. Secondary data can be obtained quickly and is relatively inexpensive. However, they have limitations and should be carefully evaluated to determine the appropriateness for the problem at hand. The evaluation criteria consist of specifications, error, currency, objectivity, nature, and dependability.

A wealth of information exists in the organization for which the research is being conducted. This information constitutes internal secondary data. External data is generated by sources outside the organization. This data exists in the form of published material, online, Internet, and off-line databases, or information made available by syndicated services. Published external sources may be broadly classified as general business data or government data. General business sources comprise guides, directories, indexes, and statistical data. Government sources may be broadly categorized as census data and other data. Computerized databases may be online, Internet, or off-line. These databases may be further classified as bibliographic, numeric, full text, directory, or specialized databases.

Syndicated sources are companies that collect and sell common pools of data designed to serve a number of clients. Syndicated sources can be classified based on the unit of measurement (households/consumers or institutions). Household/consumer data may be obtained via surveys, purchased in media panels, or a chronic skin or services. When institutions are the unit of measurement, the data may be obtained from retailers, wholesalers, or industrial firms. It is desirable to combine information obtained from different secondary sources.

There are several specialized sources of secondary data useful for conducting international marketing research. However, the evaluation of secondary data becomes even more critical as the usefulness and accuracy of the data can vary widely. Ethical dilemmas that can arise include the unnecessary collection of primary data, they use of only secondary data one primary data is needed, they used a secondary data that is not applicable, and the use a secondary data that has been gathered through morally questionable means. the Internet and computers can be used to access, analyze, and store information available from secondary sources.

Primary data -- data originated by the researcher for the specific purpose of addressing the research problem
secondary data -- data collected for some purpose other than the problem hand
volume tracking data -- scanner data that provides information on purchases by Brion, size, price, and flavor or formulation
internal data -- internal data is data available within the organization for which the research is being conducted
external data -- data that originates externally from the organization
database marketing -- database marketing involves the use of computers to capture and track customer profiles and purchase details
online databases -- databases, stored in computers, which require a telecommunications network to access
Internet databases -- Internet databases can be accessed, searched, and analyzed over the Internet. It is also possible to download data from the Internet and store them in the computer storage device
off-line databases -- databases that are available on diskette, CD-ROM, or portable media
bibliographic databases -- databases composed of citations to articles and journals, magazines, newspapers, marketing research studies, technical reports, government documents, and the like. They often provide summaries or abstracts of the material cited the
numeric databases -- numeric databases contain numerical and statistical information that may be important sources of secondary data
fulltext databases -- databases containing the complete text of secondary source documents comprising the database
directory databases -- directory databases provide information on individuals, organizations, and services
specific purpose databases -- data bases that contain information on a specific nature, example -- data on a specialized industry
syndicated services -- information services offered by marketing research organizations that provide information from a common database to different firms that subscribe to their services
surveys -- interviews with a large number of respondents using a predesigned question here
psycho geographics -- quantified psychological profiles of individuals
lifestyles -- a lifestyle may be defined as a distinctive pattern of living that is described by the activities people engage in, the interests they have, and the opinions they hold of themselves and the world around them
purchase panels -- a data gathering technique in which respondents record their purchases online or in a diary
media panels -- a data gathering technique that is comprised of samples of respondents whose television viewing behavior is automatically recorded by electronic devices, supplementing the purchase information recorded online or in a diary
scanner data -- data obtained by passing merchandise over a laser scanner that reads the UPC code from the packages
scanner panels -- scanner panel members are identified by an ID card, allowing each pay no members purchase is to be stored with respect to his or her identity
scanner panels with cable TV -- the combination of scanner panel with manipulations of the advertising that is being broadcast by cable television companies
audit -- a data collection process derived from physical records or performing inventory analysis. Data is collected personally by the researcher or by representatives of the researcher, and the data at is based upon counts usually a physical objects other than people
industry services -- provide syndicated data about industrial firms, businesses, and other institutions
single source data -- an effort to combine data from different sources by gathering integrated information on household and marketing variables applicable to the same set of respondents
computer mapping -- maps that solve marketing problems are called thematic maps. They combine geographer he lives demographic information and accompanies sales data or other proprietary information and are generated by a computer

Marketing Research Proposal

1. executive summary -- the proposal should begin with a summary of the major points from each of the other sections, presenting an overview of the entire proposal
2. background -- the background of the problem, including the environmental context, should be discussed
3. problem definition/objectives of the research -- normally a statement of the problem, including the specific components, should be presented. If this statement has not been developed (in the case of problem identification research), the objectives of the marketing research project should be clearly specified
4. approach to the problem -- at a minimum, a review of the relevant academic and trade literature should be presented, along with some kind of analytical model. If research questions and hypotheses have been identified, then he should be included in the proposal
5. research design -- the research designed adopted, whether exploratory, descriptive, or casual, should be specified.
6. fieldwork/data collection -- the proposal should discuss how the data will be collected and he will collect it. If the field work is to be subcontracted to another supplier, this should be stated. Control mechanisms to ensure the quality of data collected should be described
7. data analysis -- the kind of data analysis that will be conducted and how the results will be interpreted should be described
8. reporting -- the proposal should specify whether intermediate reports will be presented and at what stages, what will be the form of the final report, and whether a formal presentation of the results will be made
9. cost and time -- the cost of the project and a time schedule, broken down by phases, should be presented. A CPM or PERT chart might be included. In large projects, a payment schedule is also worked out in advance
10. appendices -- any statistical or other information that is of interest to only a feed people should be contained in appendices
    

research design

Chapter 3

A research design is a framework or blueprint for conducting a market research project. It specifies the details of how the project should be conducted. Research designs may be broadly classified as exploratory or conclusive. The primary purpose of exploratory research is to provide insights into the problem. Conclusive research is conducted to test specific hypotheses and examine specific relationships. The findings from conclusive research are used as input into managerial decision-making. Conclusive research may be either descriptive or casual.

The major objective of descriptive research is to describe market characteristics or functions. A descriptive design requires a clear specification of the two, what, when, where, why, and way of the research. Descriptive research can be further classified into cross-sectional and longitudinal research. Cross-sectional designs involve the collection of information from a sample of population elements and a single point in time. In contrast, in longitudinal designs repeated measurements are taken on a fixed sample. Casual research is designed for the primary purpose of obtaining evidence about cause and effect (casual) relationships.

A research design consists of six components. Error can be associated with any of these components. The total error is composed of random sampling error and nonsampling error. Non-sampling error consists of non-response and response errors. Response error encompasses errors made by researchers, interviewers, and respondents. A written marketing research proposal including all the elements of the marketing research process should be prepared. In formulating a research design when conducting international marketing research, considerable effort is required to ensure the equivalence and comparability of secondary and primary data obtained from different countries.

In terms of ethical issues, the researchers must a sure that the research design utilized will provide the information sought, and that the information sought is the information needed by the client. The client should have the integrity not to misrepresent the project, should describe the situation at the researcher must operate within, and should not make unreasonable demands. Every precaution should be taken to ensure the respondents were subjects right to safety, right to privacy were right to choose. The Internet and computers can be usefully employed to aid the process of formulating a research design.

Research design -- a framework or blueprint for conducting a marketing research project. It specifies the details of the procedure necessary for attaining the information needed to structure and/or solve marketing research problems
exploratory research -- 1 type of research design, which has as its primary objective to a provision of insights into, and comprehension of, the problem situation confronting the researcher
conclusive research -- research designed to assist the decision-maker in determining, evaluating, and selecting the best course of action to take in a given situation
descriptive research -- a type of conclusive research that has its major objective the description of something -- usually marketing characteristics or functions
Cross sectional design -- a type of research design involving the collection of information from any given sample of population elements only once
single cross-sectional design -- a cross-sectional design in which one sample of respondents is drawn from the target population and information is obtained from this sample once
multiple cross-sectional design -- a cross-sectional design in which there are two or more samples of respondents and information from each sample is obtained only once
cohort analysis -- a multiple cross-sectional design consisting of a series of surveys conducted at the appropriate time intervals. The cohort refers to the group of respondents who experience the same event within the same time interval
longitudinal design -- a type of research design involving a fake sample of population elements that is measured repeatedly. The sample remains the same over time, thus providing a series of pictures which, when viewed together, portray a vivid illustration of the situation and the changes that are taking place over time
panel -- a sample of respondents who have agreed to provide information at specified intervals over on extended period
casual research -- a type of conclusive research where the major objective is to obtain evidence regarding cause-and-effect relationships
total error -- the variation between the true mean value in the population of the variable of interest in the observed mean value obtained in the marketing research project
random sampling error -- the error due to the particular sample selected being an imperfect representation of the population of interest. It may be defined as the variation between the true meaning value for the sample and the true mean value of the population
non-sampling error -- non-sampling errors are errors that can be attributed to sources other than sampling, they can be random or nonrandom
nonresponse error -- a type of non-sampling error that occurs when some of the respondents included in the sample did not respond. This error can be defined as the variation between the true mean value of the variable and the original sample and a true mean value in the net sample
response error -- a type of non-sampling error arising from respondents who do you respond to give inaccurate answers, or their answers are misreported or mis-analyzed. It may be defined as the variation between the training value of the variable and the net sample and the observed mean value obtained in the marketing research project
budgeting and scheduling -- management tools needed to help ensure the marketing research project is completed within the available resources
critical Path method (CPM) -- management technique of dividing a research project into component activities, determining the sequence of these components and the time each activity will require
program evaluation and review technique (PERT) -- a more sophisticated critical Path method that accounts for the uncertainty in project completion times
graphical evaluation and review technique (GERT) -- a sophisticated critical Path method that accounts for both the completion probabilities and the activity costs
marketing research proposal -- the official layout of the planned marketing research activity for management. It describes the research problem, the approach, the research design, data collection methods, data analysis methods, and reporting methods

defining the market research problem and developing an approach

Chapter 2

Defining the market research problem is the most important step in a research project. It is a difficult step, because frequently manage and it has not determined the actual problem or has only a vogue nation about it. The researchers role is to help management identify and isolate the problem.

The tasks involved in formulating the marketing research problem include discussions with management, including the key decision-makers, interviews with industry experts, analysis of secondary data, and qualitative research. These tasks should lead to an understanding of the environmental context of the problem. The environmental context of the problem should be analyzed and certain essential factors evaluated. These factors include past information and forecasts about the industry and the firm, objectives of the DM, buyer behavior, resources and constraints of the firm, the legal and economic environment, and marketing and technological skills of the firm.

Analysis of the environmental context should assist in the identification of the management decision problem, what should be translated into a marketing research problem. The management decision problem asks what the DM needs to do, whereas the marketing research problem ass what information is needed and how it can be obtained effectively and efficiently. The researcher should avoid defining the marketing research problem either too broadly or too narrowly. An appropriate way of defined the market research problem is to make a broad statement of the problem and then identify its specific components.

Developing an approach to the problem is the second step in the marketing research process. The components of an approach consists of objective/theoretical framework, analytical models, research questions, hypotheses, and specification of information needed. It is necessary that the approach developed be based on objective or empirical evidence and be grounded in theory. The relevant variables and their interrelationships may be neatly summarized via an analytical model. The most common kinds of model structures are verbal, graphical, and mathematical. The research questions are refined statements of the specific components of the problem that asked what specific information is required with respect to the problem components. Research questions may be further refined into hypotheses. Finally, given the problem definition, research questions, and hypotheses, the information needed should be specified.

When defining the problem in international marketing research, the researcher must isolate and examined the impact of the self reference criterion (SRC), or the unconscious reference to one's own cultural values. Likewise, when developing an approach, the differences in the environment prevailing in the domestic market and the foreign markets should be carefully considered. Several ethical issues that have an impact on the client and the researcher can arise at this stage but can be resolved by adhering to the seven C's. The Internet and computers can be useful in the process of defining the problem in developing an approach.

The seven C's
communication
cooperation
confidence
candor
closeness
continuity
creativity

Problem definition -- a broad statement of the general problem and identification of the specific components of the marketing research problem
problem audit -- a comprehensive examination of a marketing problem to understand its origin and nature
DM -- abbreviation for decision-maker
secondary data -- data collected for some purpose other than the problem at hand
primary data -- data originated by the researcher specifically to address the research problem
qualitative research -- an unstructured, exploratory research methodology based on small samples intended to provide insight and understanding of the problem setting
environmental context of the problem -- consists of the factors that have an impact on the definition of the marketing research problem, including pass information and forecasts, resources and constraints of the firm, objectives of the decision maker, buyer behavior, legal environment, economic environment, and the marketing and technological skills of the firm
objectives -- goals of the organization and of the decision-maker must be considered in order to conduct successful marketing research
buyer behavior -- a body of knowledge that tries to understand and predict consumers reactions based on an individual's specific characteristics
legal environment -- regulatory policies and norms within the organizations must operate
economic environment -- the economic environment consists of income, prices, savings, credit, and general economic conditions
management decision problem -- the problem confronting the decision-maker. It asks what the decision maker needs to do
marketing research problem -- a problem that entails determining what information is needed and how it can be obtained in the most feasible way
broad statement -- the initial statement of the marketing research problem that provides an appropriate perspective on the problem
specific components -- the second part of the marketing research problem definition. The specific components focus on the key aspects of the problem and provide clear guidelines on how to proceed further
theory -- a conceptual scheme based on foundational statements, that are assumed to be true
objective evidence -- on biased evidence that is supported by empirical findings
analytical model -- an explicit specification of a set of variables and their interrelationships designed to represent some real system or process in whole or in part
verbal models -- analytical models that provide a written representation of the relationships between variables
graphical models -- analytical models that provide a visual picture of the relationships between variables
mathematical models -- analytical models that explicitly describe the relationships between variables, usually an equation form
research questions -- research questions are refined statements of the specific components of the problem
hypothesis -- an unproven statement or proposition about a factor or phenomenon that is of interest to the researcher
self reference criterion -- the unconscious reference to ones own cultural values

introduction to marketing research

Chapter 1

Problem identification research -- research that is undertaking to help identify problems and are not necessarily apparent on the surface and yet exist or are likely to arise in the future
problem-solving research -- research undertaken to help solve specific marketing problems

marketing research process -- a set of six steps that defines the tasks to be accomplished in conducting a marketing research study. These include:

1. problem definition
2. development of an approach to the problem
3. research design formulation
4. fieldwork
5. data preparation and analysis
6. report preparation and presentation.

internal supplier -- marketing research departments located within a firm
external suppliers -- outside marketing research companies hired to supply marketing research data
full service suppliers -- companies that offer the full range of marketing research activities
syndicated services -- companies that collect and sell common pools of data designed to serve information needs shared by a number of clients
standardize services -- companies that use standardized procedures to provide marketing research to various clients
customized services -- companies that tailor the research procedures to best meet the needs of each client
Internet services -- companies that have specialized in conducting marketing research on the Internet
Limited service suppliers -- companies that specialize in one or a few phases of the marketing research project
Field services -- companies whose primary service offering is their expertise in collecting data for research projects
coding and data entry services -- companies whose primary service offering is their expertise in converting completed surveys or interviews into a usable database for conducting statistical analysis
analytical services -- companies that provide guidance in the development of the research design
data analysis services -- firms whose primary service is to conduct statistical analysis of quantitative data
branded marketing research products -- specialized data collection and analysis procedures developed to address specific types of marketing research problems
marketing information system (MIS) -- a formalized set of procedures for generating, analyzing, storing, and distributing pertinent information to marketing decision-makers on an ongoing basis
decision support systems (DSS) -- information systems that enable decision-makers to interact directly with both databases and analysis models. The important components of a DSS include hardware and a communications network, database, model-based, software base, and DSS users (decision-makers)

Marketing research involves the identification, collection, analysis, dissemination, and use of information. It is a systematic and objective process designed to identify and solve marketing problems. The us, marketing research can be classified as problem identification research and problem solving research. The marketing research process consists of six steps that must be followed systematically. The role of marketing research is to access information needs and provide relevant information in order to improve marketing decision making.

Marketing research may be conducted internally or may be purchased from external suppliers referred to as the marketing research industry. Full service suppliers provide the entire range of marketing research services from problem definition to report preparation and presentation. The services provided by the suppliers can be classified as syndicated, standardize, customized, or Internet services. Limited service suppliers specialize in one or a few phrases of the marketing research project. Services offered by the suppliers can be classified as field services, coding and data entry, data analysis, analytical services, or branded products.

Due to the need for marketing research, attractive career opportunities are available with marketing research firms, businesses and nonbusiness firms, agencies with marketing research departments, and advertising agencies. Information obtained using marketing research becomes an integral part of the MIS and DSS. Marketing research contributes to the DSS by providing research data to the database, marketing models and analytical techniques to the model base, and specialized marketing research programs to software base. International marketing research is much more complex than domestic research as a researcher must consider the environment prevailing in the international markets that are being researched.

The ethical issues in marketing research involve four stakeholders:
the marketing researcher
the client
the respondent
the public.

The Internet and micro computers can be used at every step of the marketing research process.